embroideries on the robes worn by these last, wild beasts, as emblematic of the fiercer and more untamed nature of the wearers, form the more appropriate ornaments. Thus military officers of the first grade wear an embroidered unicorn; of the second, a lion; of the third, a leopard; of the fourth, a tiger; of the fifth, a bear; of the sixth, a tigercat; of the seventh, a mottled bear; of the eighth, a seal; and of the ninth a rhinoceros. These distinctions are descriptive of the comparative estimate in which military officers are held. Unlike the Aryan races, the Chinese regard the profession of arms with disdain. The same literary knowledge is not required from military officers as is demanded from civilians. A comparatively slight acquaintance with the classics is expected of them, and proficiency in prose and verse composition is not looked for. Skill in archery and riding is justly considered to be of more importance than a profound knowledge of the "Spring and Autumn Annals" of Confucius, or even of the "Book of Changes." But all this tells against them in a nation of pedants like the Chinese, who hold the man who comes out first in the examinations in far higher estimation than the most doughty champion in battle. It sometimes happens that, as was formerly the case in Europe, civilians are in emergencies put to command in the field and on board ships, but such interchanges of duty are only temporary, and are always one-sided. A military man is seldom or never put into civil office.

The central government of the empire is entirely in the hands of civilians. The emperor is,

as has already been said, supreme in all matters of administration, but even the Son of Heaven requires the advice and assistance of trained councillors. The democratic spirit which underlies the whole system of government in China makes it essential that he should be in touch with the people. To supply an intermediate link, two imperial councils advise the emperor on all matters of importance. Both of them are deliberative bodies, and are known as the Nuiko, or cabinet, and the Chünchi Chu, or the council of state. Subordinate to these bodies are six Boards, with whom rests the active administration of affairs. The cabinet consists of three Chinese and three Manchu chancellors, together with a large body of mandarins of the six highest grades, whose duties, as defined by the imperial statutes, are "to deliberate on the government of the empire, to proclaim abroad the imperial pleasure, and to regulate the canons of state, together with the whole administration of the great balance of power, thus aiding the emperor in directing the affairs of state." Every morning at daylight the chancellors of the cabinet meet and present to the emperor annotated state papers, relating to every branch of administration. With a mark of the vermilion pencil the emperor declares his will, and the papers thus approved are transmitted to the several Boards to be acted upon. To the hands of these authorities also are entrusted the twentyfive seals of government which vouch for the authenticity of the documents to which they are appended, and it further falls to their lot to preside at state ceremonials and sacrificial services of the first order.

The duties of the chancellors of the Nuiko are of a negative kind. They originate nothing, but only give their advice on events as they occur. The Chünchi Chu may, on the other hand, be called the positive branch of the Government. It determines policies, and initiates courses of action in every department of administration. Its members are appointed directly by the emperor, and consist of princes, nobles, and the highest officers of State, and their duties are described as being "to write imperial edicts and decisions, and to determine such things as are of importance to the army and nation, in order to aid the sovereign in regulating the machinery of affairs." No limitation of number is fixed to these officials; but, as a matter of fact, they have not of late years exceeded four, that number being held to be the best suited for the despatch of business; the necessity of having an equal number of Chinese and Manchus making an even number imperative. At an hour in the morning when the capitals of Europe are wrapped in slumber the members of the Chünchi Chu meet in the Forbidden Palace and discuss, in the presence of the Son of Heaven, all affairs of state, from the most important imperial concerns down to the promotion and degradation of mandarins of the lowest ranks. When a matter of ordinary administration is decided the minute embodying the decision is forwarded to the Nuiko for promulgation, while orders demanding secrecy are entrusted to the Board of War for execution. We may well imagine that it was through this channel that the secret decree, counteracting the latest edict commanding the due fulfilment of the treaties, was transmitted to the provincial viceroys.

The minutes of this council are carefully preserved, and form a complete administrative history of the empire. It is from the archives of this office that the Peking Gazette is compiled. This journal, which is one of the oldest in the world, contains a selection of the imperial edicts, the memorials, and the official announcements issued daily from the Chünchi Chu. Special copies are despatched to the high provincial authorities by imperial couriers, and printed copies are supplied to subscribers by more leisurely means. There is no government in the world which in this respect lives so coram populo as the Chinese. The faults and errors of every one bearing office in the empire, from the emperor down to the lowest district magistrate, are duly pointed out in the pages of this outspoken journal. In its columns the emperor, in times of national disaster, does penance, as it were, for his shortcomings, which have, as he and his people choose to consider, brought the misfortunes on the land. There, also, may be read the imperial condemnation of princes of the blood, as well as of officials of all ranks, who have acted in defiance of the laws or neglected the minutest ceremonies. And side by side with these appear memorials on all subjects interesting to the people, whether it be the canonization of saints, the conferring posthumous honours on deceased heroes, or the virtues and crimes of individuals. Its pages thus reflect the national mind on all matters great and small; and hold up to us a picture, true to life, of the manners and modes of thought of the people.

In so vast an empire as China it is plainly impossible that such councils as have just been

described can do more than direct the imperial policy. The executive must be left to other hands. It would be even more impossible for the Nuiko and Chünchi Chu to carry out administrative details in the provinces than it would be for the Queen's Cabinet to deal successfully with the minutiae of foreign affairs or of colonial concerns, and, therefore, as among ourselves, departmental matters are handed over to the public offices for execution. The principal of these are known as the six Boards, which are those of (1) civil office, of (2) revenue, of (3) rites, of (4) war, of (5) punishments, and of (6) works. The first of these concerns itself with titles, patents, precedence, etc., and its duties are described as including "whatever appertains to the plans of selecting rank and official gradation, to the rules determining degradation and promotion, to the ordinances of granting investitures and rewards, and the laws for fixing schedules and furloughs, that there may be a full and constant supply of officials." One of the most troublesome duties connected with this office is that of providing for the emergencies which constantly arise from the death of one or other of the parents of officials. On such occasions the law makes it imperative that the bereaved mandarin should retire from public life for three years, a period which, by a pious fiction, is reduced in practice to twenty-seven months. Even this shorter time, however, often proves to be highly inconvenient. A viceroy may be in the midst of a delicate negotiation, or a governor may be face to face with a rebellion in his province, but on the news reaching him of the death of either parent he is bound by all he holds sacred to lock up his seal