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only is apparent, that the game was played by many persons, and with many balls. Besides these most usual, and therefore to us better known games, it is very natural to suppose that there were many other varieties.

Another species of gymnastics was the swinging of the halteres, weights, which, in practising to leap, were held in the hands. Representations of this exercise are to be found on gems and in paintings. See Tassie, Catal. pl. 46, 7978; Descr. d. Bains de Tit. pl. 17. Paus. i. 25, 26, ii. 3, adduces statues with halteres; and on the base of a restored statue of a boxer, in the Dresden collection (Aug. t. 109), hang the halteres as well as the cestus. [Pausan. v. 27, 8.] In the Roman gymnastics, these masses of lead served not only as springing-weights, but were held in the hand and swung in various directions with the arms. This bodily exercise is mentioned by Seneca, Ep. 15: Sunt exercitationes et faciles et breves. Cursus et cum aliquo pondere manus motœ; and (Ep. 56) where he is describing the noise in the sphæristerium of the baths of Baia: Cum fortiores exercentur et manus plumbo graves jactant, cum aut laborant, aut laborantem imitantur, gemitus audio. Mart. xiv. 19, also mentions them:

Quid pereunt stulto fortes haltere lacerti?

Exercet melius vinea fossa viros.

and Philænis says (vii. 67, 6): gravesque draucis halteras facili rotat lacerto. Comp. Juven. vi. 420. Mercurialis, in explanation, has given several copies of halterista, taken from gems, and says: ut possit certior formæ hujusce exercitationis notitia haberi, adponendas curavimus halteristarum imagines, quas ex gemmis antiquis sculptis acceptas ad nos misit Pyrrhus Ligorius; which words are expressly quoted that the whole copy may not be considered a mere fancy, as unfortunately is often the case with similar representations. Resting upon this, in Becker's Nachtr. ad Aug. 429, the Dresden sphæristæ, as they are called, are surmised to have been rather halteristæ.

A third sort of exercise was the sham fight with the palus, a post fixed in the ground, and against which they fought with a wickerwork shield and wooden sword, as against a living adversary. This game served originally as practice for the tirones, in order that they might acquire a knowledge of the use of their weapons. Veget. i. 11, gives us a full explanation of it: Antiqui, sicut invenitur in libris, hoc genere exercuere tirones. Scuta de vimine in modum cratium corrotundata texebant, ita ut duplum pondus cratis haberet, quam scutum publicum habere consuevit, iidemque clavas ligneas dupli aque ponderis pro gladiis tironibus dabant, eoque modo non tantum mane, sed etiam post meridiem exercebantur ad palos. Palorum autem usus non solum militibus, sed etiam gladiatoribus plurimum prodest.

A singulis tironibus singuli pali defigebantur in terram, ita ut nutare non possent, et sex pedibus eminerent. Contra illum palum, tanquam contra adversarium, tiro cum crate illa et clava velut cum gladio se exercebat et scuto, ut nunc quasi caput aut faciem peteret, nunc lateribus minaretur, interdum contenderet poplites et crura succidere, accederet, recederet, assultaret, insiliret, et, quasi præsentem adversarium, sic palum omni impetu, omni bellandi arte tentaret. In qua meditatione servabatur illa cautela, ut ita tiro ad inferendum vulnus insurgeret, ne qua parte ipse pateret ad plagam. This kind of fight was however practised not only as a study, but also for exercise previous to the bath. This is what Martial means (vii. 32, 7),

Non pila, non follis, non te paganica thermis
Præparat, aut nudi stipitis ictus hebes :

where stipes means simply the post, and ictus hebes, the wooden sword. So also Juven. vi. 247, in reprobation of the vicious habit of women practising such gymnastics :

Endromidas Tyrias et femineum ceroma

Quis nescit? vel quis non vidit vulnera pali?
Quem cavat adsiduis sudibus scutoque lacessit.

Comp. v. 267, where Lipsius, Mil. Rom. v. 14; Saturn. i. 15, would read rudibus instead of sudibus.

Besides these, especially in the public baths, the more severe exercises of the palestra, as the lucta (whence frequent mention of the ceroma, and flavescere haphe), the discus, &c. were practised.

Running and leaping were very common exercises. Augustus himself, after reducing his gymnastics to ambulatio alone, used to do this. Suet. Aug. 83, deambulabat, ita ut in extremis spatiis subsultim decurreret. Seneca, Ep. 15, divides leaping into three kinds, saltus, vel ille qui corpus in altum levat, vel ille qui in longum mittit, vel ille, ut ita dicam, saliaris, aut ut contumeliosius dicam, fullonius. The latter was not so much to be called leaping, as a species of dancing after the fashion of the Salii. [Plautus, Bacch. iii. 3, 24, mentions all the exercises together, though he is referring chiefly to Greek customs:

Ibi cursu, luctando, hasta, disco, pugilatu, pila,
Saliendo, sese exercebant.

So Ovid. Trist. iii. 12, 19; Art. Am. iii. 383.]

Old or indolent people, who wanted either the power or the inclination for more severe exercises, restricted themselves to the ambulatio or gestatio only, partly on horseback, partly in a carriage or on the lectica. Still there are many instances in which men of advanced age did not renounce the game of ball. Pliny

relates of Spurinna, Ep. iii. 1: Ubi hora balinei nuntiata est, in sole, si caret vento, ambulat nudus. Deinde movetur pila vehementer et diu; nam hoc quoque exercitationis genere pugnat cum senectute.

For the purpose of practising these gymnastics, they had in their own residence a sphæristerium, which derived its name from the game of ball, as being the most favourite and general exercise, although it was fitted up for other games also. [Stat. Silv. iv. præf. Sed et sphæromachias spectamus et pilaris lusio admittitur. Comp. Suet. Vesp. 20; Orell. Inscr. 57.] So Pliny, Ep. v. 6, 27, says: Apodyterio superpositum est sphæristerium, quod plura genera exercitationis pluresque circulos capit. There then the sphæristerium was situated on the first floor, for Hirt's conjecture, apodyterio suppositum est sph., which is as much as to say, 'under the windows of the apodyterium lies the sphæristerium,' is neither necessary, nor in conformity with the usages of language, as we may say subjacet, but not supponitur. Probably a stair led from the apodyterium into the sphæristerium, which might nevertheless be a much larger room than the other. The circuli are not divisions of the sphæristerium, for the different games, or parties of players, but the latter themselves. The expression could best be explained from Petronius, where we read (27): Nos interim vestiti errare cœpimus (in balneo), imo jocari magis et circulis ludentum accedere. The word is the more suitable, as most probably, at the public baths, a circle of spectators used to collect round the players. Hence Mart. vii. 72, 10, says:

Sic palmam tibi de trigone nudo
Unctæ det favor arbiter coronæ.

Celsus, i. 2, prescribes: Exercitationis plerumque finis esse debet sudor, aut certe lassitudo, quæ citra fatigationem sit. And for this reason the place of exercise was erected in sunny spots in the open air, and if inside the house, was so made as to admit of being warmed. So Statius says of the Balneum Etrusci, v. 57, seqq.:

Quid nunc strata solo referam tabulata, crepantes

Auditura pilas, ubi languidus ignis inerrat

Edibus, et tenuem volvunt hypocausta vaporem.

Comp. Gevart. Lect. Papin. c. 38. From this passage we might conclude that the sphæristeria were sometimes boarded, strata solo tabulata, but after considering the words immediately succeeding, ubi languidus ignis inerrat, etc., we can only arrive at the conviction that we must not read tabulata but tubulata, as has been shown above. Pliny, Ep. ii. 17, 9: Adhæret dormitorium membrum, transitu interjacente, qui suspensus et tubulatus conceptum vaporem, salubri temperamento huc illucque digerit et ministrat. The matter becomes

still plainer through Seneca, Ep. 90: Quædam nostra demum prodisse memoria scimus-ut suspensuras balneorum et impressos parietibus tubos, per quos circumfunderetur calor, qui ima simul et summa foveret æqualiter. In Statius, then, we must suppose the floor to have been warmed, which is not extraordinary, for they used to exercise perfectly naked, and the solece were naturally taken off. Petr. 27, adduces it as something particular that Trimalchio soleatus pila exercebatur. Also in Martial, xii. 85, 3, we have,

Colliget et referet lapsum de pulvere follem,

Et si jam lotus, jam soleatus erit.

As the exercitatio always preceded the bath, it is natural to suppose that the sphæristeria, both at the public balnea, and in private houses, were immediately adjoining the bath. So they are placed by Pliny in both the villas. Ep. ii. 17, 12; v. 6, 27.

EXCURSUS I. SCENE VIII.

THE DRESS OF THE MEN.

AS S the costume of the Roman ladies remained till a late period essentially the same, so the men wore one distinguishing dress which first began to grow obsolete after the downfall of the Republic, when the indifference respecting the cultivation of national habits equalled that about the public affairs of the country. It is true that other articles of dress were worn as well as the simple robe of early days, and even this was folded with greater nicety and amplitude than before; but we must look on those habits as genuine Roman which were in vogue at the most blooming period of the Republic.

Among the writings on this subject, the laborious compilation of Ferrarius (De re Vestiaria, ii. vii.) will always stand chief. Differing from him, are Rubeni, De re Vest, præcipue de lato clavo, and on the other side, Ferrarii, Analecta de re Vest.; Dandré Bardon, du Costume, etc. des anciens peuples; Martini, Das Kostüm der meisten Völker des Alterth.; Malliot and Martin, Recherches sur le Costume, etc. des anc. peuples, t. i.—iii.; Seckendorf, Die Grundform der Toga; Thom. Baxter, Description of the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman Costumes; Bartholini, de panula. Compare also Ottfr. Müller, Etrusker, i. 260. See Becker's Charicles, translated by Metcalfe. The chief sources of information are Quinctil. Inst. xi. 3; the grammarians, especially Nonius, De genere vestim.; Gellius, vii. 12; Tertull. De pallio, v.; and the numerous statues in Roman costume.

In speaking of the dress of every-day life, we shall exclude the costume belonging to particular offices, or to public positions generally, as well as the un-roman habiliments which came into use after the second century; nor shall we describe the tunica palmata and toga picta of the Triumphatores, or the paludamentum of the general, or the caracalla, the bracca, &c. The regular dress of the Romans, both male and female, consisted of only two or three articles, the tunica interior and exterior, and the toga, to which were added certain others, as the pœnula, and later the fasciæ, for travelling, or defence against the inclemency of the weather.

THE TOGA.

WHETHER the word toga, rýẞevvoç, be rightly derived by Varro, v. 23, and Nonius i. 2, from tegere corpus, is immaterial, though

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