emphasizes a certain locality, like the mountain regions of Kentucky and Tennessee, or the wilds of Wyoming; sometimes it sets forth a definite historical period, or it may center the attention upon some great industry or occupation, like that of lumbering, in Stewart Edward White's "Blazed Trail." In any case the setting should be in keeping with the story that is told. This has not always been the case in the novels of the past, but in modern fiction the setting is so closely welded with the action that it is often the cause of what happens; and, should it be changed, the characters and what they do must necessarily change also.

The plot is the skeleton or framework which gives shape and proportion to the novel. It is essential, though often faintly drawn. It usually consists of a main thread and one or two others woven together. Each of these threads is made up of a series of related events so arranged that the first either directly or indirectly causes the one that follows. Occasionally a plot runs in an inverse order, beginning with results and from these going back to causes. Though this series of events is at intervals interrupted or blocked for a time, it ultimately reaches a definite culmination. In arranging a plot the author chooses just how much he will set forth; and decides whether he will tell his story in detail, making it cover a long period of time and involve many characters, or organize the material so compactly that it will include but few characters and cover a short time. He must have his plot complete before he writes the story, so that nothing will creep in to break the unity. The characters of a great novel may be many or few, but they must be true to life and worth knowing. They can never be puppets which the author manipulates to suit his own whims. If he once places his characters in certain circumstances and situations of life, they must act in accordance with the laws of those circumstances and situations, whether the author wishes it or not. The incidents which take place, then, have to happen. The author may have no choice in the matter. The characters thus determine the plot, and not the plot the characters.

The general structure of a novel is very similar to that of an older play, there being in both an introduction of characters and situations, an incitement, an ascending action, climax, descending action, and catastrophe or dénouement. The novel also makes use of incidents and situations to reveal or determine character; and of surprise and suspense to sustain interest. The novel, however, has a much greater freedom in many particulars than the drama. The

climax, for instance, is seldom so carefully placed. Often there is only a series of smaller climaxes instead, and sometimes the climax seems to coincide with the conclusion. There is somewhere, though, the great knot which ties the threads of the plot together; and, at the last, this knot is untied and the difficulties are resolved, in whole or in part. But the author of a great novel always leaves his reader with the feeling that the story told is but a chapter from the larger book of life.

The Study of a Novel.—At this point in the course the study of a particular novel should be made. For this work read "A Tale of Two Cities," using a text from any of the series of classics.

NOTES, COMMENTS, AND QUESTIONS OF "A TALE
OF TWO CITIES"

Long before Dickens began to plan out the characters and plot for "A Tale of Two Cities," he was filled with a desire to write a novel with the French Revolution as a setting. He, accordingly, began to read everything he could find on the history of that time; and, when he finally did arrange his characters and incidents, they were especially vivid, and true to the background. The work was finished in 1859.

The story is more direct and the threads of the plot are more closely woven together in "A Tale of Two Cities" than in any other of Dickens's works. Although the plot and setting are more prominent than the characters, Dickens has here made one advancement in character delineation over his other novels. Instead of having his people unchanged by their experiences, he has in this novel shown real character development in at least two persons, Sydney Carton and Jerry Cruncher.

The Time Element.

The events of Book I are represented as happening in 1775; those of Book II from 1780 to 1792; and those of Book III from the autumn of 1792 to 1794. The background events which connect the lives of Dr. Manette, Charles Darnay, and the Defarges occurred eighteen years before the story proper begins.

The General Structure of this Novel.

(1) The introduction:

Book I, and the first three chapters of Book II, give the introduction of characters, and the underlying situations.

(2) The beginning of the action :

Charles Darnay's trial for treason, Book II, Chapters 2 and 3, is the beginning of the action. Here the threads of Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Sydney Carton become entangled.

(3) The climax or turning point:

In the chapter entitled "Drawn to the Loadstone Rock," Charles Darnay gets the letter from Gabelle which takes him to France. This is the turning point.

(4) The concluding crisis:

The point which follows closely the climax and changes suddenly the course of the story, is the arrest of Darnay upon entering France.

(5) The retarding point:

The point where another ending to the story is suggested is in the first part of the chapter, "The Knock at the Door." After this point there is no possible release for Charles except through the great sacrifice.

(6) The catastrophe:

The death of Sydney Carton.

It will be noticed that the plot is very dramatic, following almost exactly the structure of a play. Dickens was undecided for a time whether to handle his material as a novel, or to throw it into the dramatic form.

BOOK THE FIRST. "RECALLED TO LIFE"

Book I is taken up with (1) the general condition of affairs in England and France in 1775; (2) the introduction of several characters who are to be prominent in the story; and (3) certain background circumstances that are necessary for the understanding of the main action. The characters introduced are Dr. Manette and his daughter, Lucie; the latter's old nurse, Miss Pross; Mr. Jarvis Lorry, the representative of Tellson's banking house of London; Jerry Cruncher, the odd-job-man connected with Tellson's; and the group of people in the Paris wine-shop-Monsieur and Madame Defarge, Gaspard, and the three Jacques.

Chapter I. "The Period."

(1) How does this chapter strike the key-note of the story?

(2) Who were the "king with a large jaw and queen with a plain face, on the throne of England" (1775)?

(3) Who were the "king with a large jaw and queen with a fair face, on the throne of France"?

(4) Look up the story of the famous Cock-lane ghost. See "Reader's Hand Book."

(5) Mrs. Southcott was a woman who claimed to have prophetic power. Why does the author mention Mrs. Southcott and the Cock-lane ghost here?

Chapter II. "The Mail."

(1) What conditions referred to in Chapter I are illustrated in this chapter?

(2) What characters prominent in the story are introduced here? How many passengers are on the coach?

(3) How is the reader's interest aroused?
(4) Notice the plot points of this chapter:

(a) Mr. Lorry's getting the note brought by Jerry, "Wait in
Dover for Mam'selle."

(b) The reply sent back, "Recalled to life."

(c) Effect of this reply, "Recalled to life," on Jerry: "That 's a blazing strange message. .. You'd be in a blazing

bad way, if recalling to life was to come into fashion, Jerry!"

Chapter III. "The Night Shadows."

(1) What two purposes does this chapter serve?

(2) What are the mysterious things about Jerry? Notice the use of

suspense.

(3) What were the dreams of Mr. Lorry that night on the mail coach? Can you discover any causes for them?

(4) What plot points do you find here?

Chapter IV. "The Preparation."

(1) Why does the author not describe Mr. Lorry until this chapter? What is your first impression of him? How old a man?

(2) What is the real purpose of this chapter?

(3) What new characters are introduced? Impression of them? (4) What mystery is cleared up in this chapter?

(5) What was a lettre-de-cachet? What reference to one here?

Chapter V. "The Wine-Shop."

(1) What special purpose does this chapter serve?

(2) How does the author foreshadow later events in the episode of the wine-cask? What other examples of foreshadowing in this chapter?

(3) Why does the author describe with such detail the Saint Antoine district?

(4) What feeling is aroused in the reader here?

(5) What new characters are introduced in this chapter?

(6) Why does the author describe Monsieur and Madame Defarge so carefully? What impression do you get of their characters? (7) What is the most characteristic description of Madame?

(8) What is the purpose of the signals and signs used by Madame Defarge?