3. Yea, better is he than both they which hath not yet been, who hath not seen the evil work that is done under the sun.

4. Again, I considered all travail, and every right work, that for this a man is envied of his neighbour. This is also vanity and vexation of spirit.

5. The fool foldeth his hands together, and eateth his own flesh.

6. Better is a handful with quietness, than both the hands full with travail and vexation of spirit."

Here are two equal semi-strophes, of which the first (verses 1–3) depicts the gnawing wretchedness of the oppressed poor; the second (verses 4-6) depicts the anxieties of even the favoured child of fortune. Oppression grinds the former, envy goads the latter.

Strophe 2. In the family and social relations of life. (iv, 7-12.)

7. "Then I returned, and I saw vanity under the sun.

8. There is one alone, and there is not a second: yea, he hath neither child nor brother; yet is there no end of all his labour; neither is his eye satisfied with riches; neither saith he, For whom do I labour, and bereave my soul of good? This is also vanity, yea, it is a sore travail.

9. Two are better than one; because they have a good reward for their labour. 10. For if they fall, the one will lift up his fellow: but wo to him that is alone when he falleth; for he hath not another to help him up.

11. Again, if two lie together, then they have heat; but how can one be warm alone?

12. And if one prevail against him, two shall withstand him; and a threefold cord is not quickly broken."

This may also be divided. The substance of the first part is, (verses 7, 8,) that "men who form no family ties live an aimless life, and therefore have no enjoyment either of wealth or labour;" of the second, (verses 9-12,) that "union and society are much better than isolation."

Strophe 3. In the higher sphere of political life, in which favour and honour are so uncertain. (iv, 13–16.)

13. "Better is a poor and a wise child than an old and foolish king, who will no more be admonished.

14. For out of prison he cometh to reign; whereas also he that is born in his kingdom becometh poor.

15. I considered all the living which walk under the sun, with the second child that shall stand up in his stead.

16. There is no end of all the people, even of all that have been before them: they also that come after shall not rejoice in him. Surely this also is vanity and vexation of spirit."

Subdivision III., (chap. v,* 1-19.†) The difficulty thus shown. (in subdivision II.) gives rise to a series of moral instructions. In three strophes:—

* Hebrew text, iv, 17.

† That a dividing line of the book exists at this point has been recognized by all commentators. Most deem it a minor subdivision; but others (e. g., Michaelis,

Strophe 1: "In order to obtain the true good of life, be true, humble, and conscientious, in thy duties towards GOD, the disposer of events,* and sole giver of innocent happiness."+ Verses 1-7.

[Since the fact that semi-strophes are employed has been sufficiently shown, we introduce them hereafter without special remark.]

(a) "Bring thy sacrifice and prayer reverently, humbly, and without vain repetitions," (verses 1-3.)

1. "Keep thy foot when thou goest to the house of God, and be more ready to hear than to give the sacrifice of fools: for they consider not that they do evil.

2. Be not rash with thy mouth, and let not thine heart be hasty to utter anything before God: for God is in heaven, and thou upon earth: therefore let thy words be few.

3. For a dream cometh through the multitude of business; and a fool's voice is known by multitude of words."

(b) “Be prudent in making vows, and careful in keeping them, to secure peace of mind," (verses 4–7.)

4. "When thou vowest a vow unto God, defer not to pay it; for he hath no pleasure in fools: pay that which thou hast vowed.

5. Better is it that thou shouldest not vow, than that thou shouldest vow and

not pay.

6. Suffer not thy mouth to cause thy flesh to sin; neither say thou before the angel, that it was an error: wherefore should God be angry at thy voice, and destroy the work of thine hands?

7. For in the multitude of dreams and many words there are also divers vanities: but fear thou God."

Strophe 2: "Amid injustice and avarice, (to meet sooner or later with penalties, both inward and outward,) do thou preserve a calm and lofty equanimity," (verses 8-12.)

(a) "Injustice and oppression are punished at last," (verses 8, 9.)

8. "If thou seest the oppression of the poor, and violent perverting of judgment and justice in a province, marvel not at the matter: for he that is higher than the highest regardeth; and there be higher than they.

9. Moreover the profit of the earth is for all: the king himself is served by the field."

(b) “Riches, unjustly gained, bring sorrow instead of joy; but peace often attends the humblest lot," (verses 10-12.)

Seiler, Rosenmuller, and Knobel) make it the main division between the first (theoretical) and second (practical) part of the book. This wholly erroneous view is founded on principles of division entirely modern, and altogether foreign to the Oriental mode of thought. But the "Preacher," who intermingles logic with maxims, and philosophy with morals, delights to weave in proverbs, either as opening or closing points in his divisions and strophes. The latter we have before seen, (i, 15, 18;) the former is shown in the passage before us; and both will appear hereafter again.

* Cf., chap. iii, 11, 14.

† Cf., ii, 24; iii, 13.

10. "He that loveth silver shall not be satisfied with silver; nor he that loveth abundance with increase: this is also vanity.

11. When goods increase, they are increased that eat them: and what good is there to the owners thereof, saving the beholding of them with their eyes?

12. The sleep of a labouring man is sweet, whether he eat little or much: but the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep."

Strophe 3: "Since, moreover, wealth is so unstable, and (like the search for wisdom and a splendid life, i, 12; ii, 11) brings so much anxiety and unrest, it is clear that a cheerful enjoyment of life (regarding earthly treasures as merely acceptable additions) is the worthiest good," verses 13–20.

(a) “Wealth, from its perishableness and uncertainty, is often a source of grief and pain,” (verses 13–17.)

13. "There is a sore evil which I have seen under the sun, namely, riches kept for the owners thereof to their hurt.

14. But those riches perish by evil travail: and he begetteth a son, and there is nothing in his hand.

15. As he came forth of his mother's womb, naked shall he return to go as he came, and shall take nothing of his labour, which he may carry away in his hand. 16. And this also is a sore evil, that in all points as he came, so shall he go: and what profit hath he that hath laboured for the wind?

17. All his days also he eateth in darkness, and he hath much sorrow and wrath with his sickness."

(b) "Life should be enjoyed, therefore, without sad contemplations of its dark side; yet wealth, and the capacity to enjoy it, must be regarded as a peculiar gift of GOD,” (verses 18–20.)

18. "Behold that which I have seen: it is good and comely for one to eat and to drink, and to enjoy the good of all his labour that he taketh under the sun all the days of his life, which God giveth him: for it is his portion.

19. Every man also to whom God hath given riches and wealth, and hath given him power to eat thereof, and to take his portion, and to rejoice in his labour; this is the gift of God.

20. For he shall not much remember the days of his life; because God answereth him in the joy of his heart."

Here the exhortation to enjoyment, which was hinted in iii, 12, 22, is fully developed as a conclusion.

Taking the second discourse as a whole, its scheme of structure by strophes, &c., is as follows:

Subdivision I.

22 verses.

In all, fifty-eight verses. Its strophe-structure is tolerably even, but fullest at the beginning. As in the first discourse, (i, 2, 14, 17; ii, 11, 19, 23, 26,) so also in the second, (iii, 19; iv, 8, 16; v, 10,) we find the assertion that "all is vanity." As in the first, (i, 3,) so also in this, (iii, 9,) we find the question started, "What profit

hath man of his labour?" And, finally, as in the first, (ii, 24,) so in the second, (iii, 12, 22; v, 18, 19,) we find that "it is good for man to enjoy." Hence the three chief views of "the Preacher" are repeated in this second discourse.

Looking at its contents as a whole, we find the objection raised in chap. ii, 24, that "a tranquil life must be God's gift, and, hence, man's striving for it must be vain," is done away by the doctrine that "God has ordered all things well and beautifully, and his restrictive laws are laid down that men may learn to fear him." But other difficulties spring up. The oppressor's wrongs, that must be endured by helpless weakness, the pain of isolated life, or the distractions of society-all are obstacles to enjoyment. These obstacles again may be met "in the fear of God" with steadfast equanimity. But a new one occurs in the enigma that man should be allowed to amass riches, and yet not enjoy them. A new solution to this enigma is hinted at-and is afterwards made the basis of the third discourse, just as we found man's dependence on the Divine will made the starting-point of the second. What, therefore, in chap. v, 13-17 is introduced incidentally, is made the complete theme of the THIRD DISCOURSE, which, with the FOURTH, will be exhibited in our next number.

ART. IL-PHYSICAL CAUSE OF THE DEATH OF CHRIST.

A Treatise on the Physical Cause of the Death of Christ, and its Relation to the Principles and Practice of Christianity. By WILLIAM STROUD, M. D. 8vo., pp. 496. London. 1847.

DR. STROUD was well qualified, no less by his piety than by his distinguished attainments, for the production of a treatise upon this subject. Nor was the work before us hastily prepared. The author had been gathering his materials and forming his opinions for more than a quarter of a century. As early as 1830, an outline of the work, comprising, as he tells us, "its principal facts and inferences," was published in the Evangelical Register. Since that time it has been repeatedly revised and enlarged, as new facts and principles, having a bearing upon the subject, were developed in medical science.

From these facts, the reader would be led to expect a valuable treatise; nor will the reading disappoint that expectation. Even though he should fail to reach the same conclusion as the author upon some points, he will scarcely fail of being pleased and profited.

The tone of unaffected piety that pervades the work is not among the least pleasing of its characteristics. The arguments are mainly physiological, but there is everywhere a deferring to "the written Word." We have been the more struck with this, as no class of men are more dogmatical in whatever concerns their profession, or more ready to array themselves against Revelation, when it conflicts with their notions upon certain mental and physiological subjects, than those of the medical profession. Many younger members of the profession would do well to take a hint from so eminent a practitioner and so sound a philosopher.

In this article we propose to confine ourselves mainly to a development of Dr. Stroud's theory respecting the physical cause of the death of Christ. We should, however, do injustice to our own discrimination or candour, did we not confess that the author, in his repeated revisions of the work, has by no means sought condensation. It is not, therefore, free from prolixity and tautology, especially in the second part of the work, where the discussions are mainly theological and speculative. In passing from the sphere of physical and scientific researches, in connexion with Scripture facts, to that of speculative theology, the writer evidently entered upon a terra incognita, where he is often confused and baffled. An elimination of some of the speculative portions of the work, and a condensation of other parts, so as to reduce it to half its present bulk, would certainly add to its permanent value.

The object of the work is twofold: First, "To demonstrate an important physical fact connected with the death of Christ;" and, Secondly, "To point out its relation to the principles and practice of Christianity." In the discussion of the first, the author is perfectly at home, and here the great value of the work lies. As to the manner of proceeding, he says, speaking in the third person:

"The fact is not indeed now conceived for the first time, having been more or less correctly anticipated by several pious and excellent writers during the last century; but as, in matters of such solemn import, conjecture and probability are not a sufficient ground for conviction, the author has laboured to supply a demonstration of the fact, which he trusts will be both new and satisfactory. He has accordingly been careful not to assume anything which is not generally acknowledged; and has supported every point of the argument with proofs and evidences so combined, as apparently to leave no other alternative than that which is here mentioned. Should the attempt have been successful, it will furnish fresh proof of the value of inductive reasoning; which, like a sounding-line let down into the ocean of time, has thus, from the depth of eighteen hundred years, brought up to the surface a pearl of great price."-Preface, p. 6.

Regarding the "Crucifixion of Christ" as the central fact of the gospel system, and remembering that it has ever been the theme and