gratuitous and obligatory education, as a great blessing imparted to the people of Upper Italy, and we are rather surprised that of so many tourists, who have visited that country during the last ten years, and many of whom have eloquently descanted upon the wants and woes of Italy, no one has noticed this essential improvement, until a French traveller, M. Valery, made it known last year.

The gymnasial course of studies, to which the second work before us refers, lasts six years, and consists of four classes of Latin grammar, and two classes of humanities or rhetoric. But in each of these classes, other branches of useful knowledge are taught at the same time, and here is the essential improvement upon the old system of college education. Mathematics, natural history, geography and history, and the Greek language, form an essential part of the daily instruction. The German language is also taught at extra hours. The study of the Italian language is made to keep pace with that of the Latin grammar, one being auxiliary to the other. Languages are not to be taught as a mere exercise of mechanical memory; but so that the students may learn the general principles of universal grammar, the nature and use of the parts of speech, and the manner of giving a more forcible expression to thought, by transposition or change of words, &c.' The text-books are printed expressly for the use of the gymnasia. To every gymnasium there is a catechist, who gives two hours' instruction every week on the two Testaments, on the constitution of the primitive Church, on the hierarchy which sprung from it, on the mutual relation between church and state, some idea of the universal Church, — the origin of the sects which have separated, and the points on which they differ from the Catholic. The catechist delivers a sermon of one hour on holidays.

The study of geography is made to accompany that of history, and is divided into several courses adapted to the various classes and capacities of the students. The first course consists of the preliminary notions, and a short compendium of both history and geography. The second, which lasts two years, embraces the ancient geography and history required for the understanding of classical authors. The third consists of mathematical geography, modern geography, and history. The latter begins with the geography and history of the province in which the gymnasium is placed, thence it extends to the adjacent provinces of the empire, and so on until the whole Austrian dominions are known. The next year Germany, France, Russia, and Turkey, are studied. The other states of Europe follow in succession, and after them those of JAN. APRIL, 1832,

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Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. The colonies of the Europeans in these parts of the world, and the United States of North America, are recommended as the objects of particular attention. Students are made to draw maps from memory, of the countries which they have previously studied.

The supreme direction of the gymnasia is vested in the Imperial government, which appoints a director-general at Milan, and another at Venice. Every provincial gymnasium has a vice-director, a prefect, and six professors. The directorgeneral receives the reports of the vice-directors, makes his observations on them, and corresponds directly with the Imperial government on subjects connected with his office. At the end of the scholastic year, he forwards to the Emperor himself, a list of all the students who have attended the gymnasia within his jurisdiction, with memoranda of their respective conduct, application, and progress.

The scholastic year begins on the 3d of November, and ends on the 14th of September. The lessons occupy two hours in the morning, and two in the afternoon. Besides Sundays, and other prescribed holidays, (as many of the old festivals of the Church have been abolished,) Thursday is a holiday. There are Christmas and Easter holidays, a week each time.

In order to be admitted to the gymnasium, the applicant must have attended the first three classes of the upper elementary schools, and have obtained a certificate above mediocrity from the third class, as well as one of general good conduct; and he also must have completed his ninth year. The domicile and condition of his parents are taken down, and although no one is excluded from the advantage of a superior scholastic education, yet parents are particularly recommended to consider, before they send a son to begin a gymnasial course of studies, whether they have the means of supporting him through the whole of it, and the prospect that he may afterwards, through his abilities, gain his livelihood, and maintain his station in society, otherwise it would be a serious injury to make him waste his time which he might better employ in learning some useful trade, before it is too late.' No one class in a gymnasium is to consist of more than eighty students.

With regard to punishments, they are awarded in the same spirit as in the elementary schools. Negligence or absence calls for admonition, first private, then in public; if repeated, it is reported to the parents or tutors, then the student is put back to an inferior class, and excluded from the examinations, and lastly he is dismissed the gymnasium. Moral transgressions are visited with more prompt severity. The offender is for the first time admonished, next put under arrest, which however must not be longer than twenty-four hours, notice being given to the parents. This, however, can only be inflicted once, for, on a second offence, he is excluded from the gymnasium; and if the transgression be attended with scandal and the seduction of others, a report is made to the supreme Aulic dicastero, in order that the offender may not be admitted into any other gymnasium. Corporal punishments are strictly forbidden, as in the elementary schools.

Half-yearly public examinations are appointed, when certificates are granted, and rewards distributed to the most deserving.

Of this system of education, and more especially of the elementary part of it, we cannot but speak with praise. Indeed, it is not a little singular, that the absolute government of Austria is imparting to its Italian subjects, a much more essential and lasting benefit than any government that they ever had. Under the reign of Napoleon 'the Great,' the popular education both in France and Italy was shamefully neglected*. He only wanted soldiers from the people, and he had his polytechnic and other superior institutions, as nurseries of practical and professional men; but these were few. Here on the contrary is a system, which is designed to make all men rational and useful members of societyt. From whatever quarter the boon proceeds, it ought to be received with thankfulness.

REVIEWS.

WOOD'S ALGEBRA.

The Elements of Algebra, designed for the use of Students in the University, by James Wood, D. D., Dean of Ely, and Master of St. John's College, Cambridge. Ninth Edition. Cambridge, 1830.

Ir is not with the university of Cambridge as with many other similar institutions, in which a particular course and method of studying any science are enforced or strongly recommended. It is true that the public examinations lead the tutors of the several colleges, who are naturally incited so to discipline their pupils, as to place the greatest attainable number high on the tripos list; but the manner of doing this is left to their own discretion. Every one, therefore, who pleases, publishes his book, and uses the same in his lectureroom. This system has some very obvious advantages. The moderators, or examiners, who are usually younger masters of arts, and come to the matter with the newest ideas going, feel that great scope is allowed, and do not confine themselves to any book or system, further than may appear advisable to themselves. Hence any great improvement is of comparatively easy introduction; it only needs one moderator who does not fear the appearance of singularity. Of this a remarkable instance occurred some years ago. The propriety of introducing the notation of the differential calculus, and discarding that of fluxions, was agitated by many, and much difference of opinion, and even party feeling, was the result. The question was one of greater importance than appears at first sight, since on the way of settling it depended the introduction or non-introduction of the writings of the French and other continental mathematicians. Had the university interfered in any way, it probably would have been to sanction the established usage. As it was, one individual, whose attainments and character put him above the necessity of being a follower of others, settled the question by introducing the new notation into the examination of 1817. The other examiner adhered to the old system, as did those of the two succeeding years, after which the same gentleman being again moderator, and joined by another of the same opinion, repeated the experiment of introducing the differential notation, to which all succeeding examiners have adhered.

It has occurred to us to make these remarks, and to mention this fact, lest any should suppose that it is the Cambridge system we are examining, because we have before us a Cambridge book. No supposition could be more incorrect; in fact, it would be extremely unfair towards the university to draw a conclusion respecting its system from any one book whatever. It would be like speculating upon the opinions of a country in which no religion is established by law, from the perusal of a sectarian work.

The algebra of Dr. Wood has for a long time maintained its footing in the different college lecture-rooms of the university. This distinction it owes to uniting conciseness and simplicity of demonstration in a degree very rarely excelled. We do not now speak of the matter, but of the manner and arrangement, of the clearness with which the author has succeeded in saying what he meant to say, without loading the text with superfluous sentences, or even phrases. The same praise is due to the other works of our author, the 'Mechanics' and 'Optics.' This is an excellence which may well cover a multitude of defects, particularly when the former is peculiarly the author's work, while the latter are, in a great measure, those of a system; and from it will result that the work in question will have more of the character of a text-book than any other in use at Cambridge, until some one shall arise, who is able to recast the whole, and adapt it to the present state of algebra, without sacrificing simplicity or introducing a multitude of words.

In the elementary works written at Cambridge, too much attention, in our opinion, is paid to what are called the 'high men' that is, to students who are considered as capable of competing for the most distinguished honours. The multitude, or the οἱ πολλοι*, are, generally speaking, taught from the beginnings of those books which the distinguished few are recommended to read through. This being the case, the work of Dr. Wood is peculiarly fitted for the mass, who there find a clear developement of the first rules, accompanied by examples of corresponding simplicity. It is a beginner's book, at least if any in our language can be so called; and if it cannot be considered sufficient for those who are seeking the highest parts of the science, it is, nevertheless,