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Descartes, his achievements in Mathematics and in Physics...

Principles and method of Descartes' philosophy. His peculiar views

touching the organisation of man and the lower animals...

His Meditations-discussion of the fundamental principles of philo-

sophy, the grounds on which we may doubt of all things;

The mind itself more clearly known than any external ob-

ject. An idea of God in the mind, the will the cause of

error, all clear and distinct conceptions are true, as God

cannot be the cause of error. All truth depends on the

knowledge of God........

His principles of philosophy; His theory of the universe. His

conception of God, and definition of substance; Doctrine of

continuous creation: Pantheistic element. His criterion of

truth. Character of his metaphysics.........

His psychology, mind a thinking substance. Relation of the mind

to the objects of its knowledge, his theory of mediate per-

ception. His use of the term idea. His doctrine of innate

ideas. His ethical views. Influence of his philosophy on

subsequent speculation............

Spinoza, his birth, education, and mode of life. The leading

characteristics of his philosophy.......

His Ethics, method of his system, definitions and axioms: His

chief conclusions touching God and the universe. The

human mind and the body; Three degrees of cognition;

Reason considers things as necessary under a form of eter-

nity: There is no free-will......

The affections and the emotions of the mind, desire and appetite.

The primary affections; description of the affections. Man

unable to restrain his passions. There are no final causes;

for as God exists of necessity, so does He act, being eternal

and infinite both in His existence and acts. Good and evil.

Virtuous action. The highest virtue, and the supreme good

is to know God. All that tends to the order and amity of

society is good. Man's power very limited, compared with

the power of external causes...

The power of the understanding, the order and connection of ideas
and things identical. Relation of emotion and reason. The
love of God ought chiefly to fill the mind, this love towards
God the highest good, and common to all mankind. The
essence of the mind eternal. The knowledge of God and the
intellectual love of God the highest virtue of the mind. The

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THE

HISTORY OF CIVILISATION IN SCOTLAND.

CHAPTER XXIII.

INFLUENCE OF THE UNION OF THE CROWNS UPON SCOTLAND.

A

T the opening of this period, it may be recalled that it was not the head of the Government that reformed the Church in Scotland. The change of religion was carried through in opposition to Queen Mary and the representatives of her rights; while her son only accepted the reformed doctrines. From his youth he had manifested a strong dislike to the polity of the reformed Church of his kingdom. In by-past times the Crown had always found support from its connection with the hierarchy; and nothing was more natural than that James VI. should endeavour to restore Episcopacy whenever he could command the power to erect so effective an adjunct of his throne. He was inflexibly possessed with the idea that Episcopacy must be established in Scotland; but the means which he employed to attain this end were unwise and short-sighted. This hostile attitude of the King to the polity of the Church of Scotland gave expression to a sentiment deeply rooted in his mind, it amounted to a conviction that kingly government could not exist side by side with a Presbyterian Church. James had mused on this view of the matter so long, that at last it assumed the place of an idol in his mind, and he was himself fully satisfied that there could be no real King in the realm without Episcopacy. This unfortunately became the foremost

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