University of Oxford, in Latin; but an English translation soon after appeared. This work was considered an able and useful introduction to the Newtonian system, and it has often been reprinted in England, and was translated into French.

Keill entered the arena as a warm supporter and defender of Newton, in the famous dispute between Leibnitz and Newton about the priority of their claims to the invention of fluxions and the calculus. Into the evidence or the merits of this question we cannot enter here, but, in passing, it may be said that Keill and some more of those who took part in the discussion introduced into it rather too much vehemence and passion.

In 1712, Keill was appointed professor of astronomy in the University of Oxford, and in 1718, he published "An Introduction to the True Astronomy: or Astronomical Lectures read in the Astronomical School of the University of Oxford," of which an English translation was published in 1721, and was long regarded as a standard work,

CHAPTER XXXII.

EDUCATION AND ART IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

As we have seen in the second volume, after the Reformation many efforts were made to extend the elements of education to the people. Though the nation was disturbed about forms of Church polity, and sometimes torn by civil war and persecution, yet the parish and elementary schools increased in number during the century, while the number of adventure-schools which appeared throughout the kingdom humbly praying for liberty to teach, indicates a growing and pretty general desire among the people to partake of the benefits of education. Thus there were signs that the mass of ignorance was slowly but surely yielding to the influences of civilisation. Still the vagrant habits of many, the heavy oppression of a portion of the people, and many other obstacles, required a long time to elapse ere they could be thoroughly overcome, or a complete system of national education be established.

The legislature, the church, and the local authorities, all endeavoured to promote the education of the people. In 1616, the Privy Council enacted that there should be a school established in every parish of the kingdom, and the act was to be carried into effect with the concurrence of the boroughs. But this act was not fully carried out, so that ten years later the government ordered a report to be drawn up on the state of the parishes throughout the kingdom, from which it appears that the majority of the parishes were then without regular schools. Parliament, in 1633, ratified the act of council, and

further enacted that the bishops, with the consent of the majority of parishioners, might impose a rate upon the possessors of land for establishing and supporting the parish schools. In 1641, the subject was again before parliament in the form of an overture, which, among other points about schools and education, stated that "every parish should have a reader and a school wherein children are to be taught in reading and writing, and the grounds of religion, according to the laudable acts both of church and parliament before enacted". Again in 1645, parliament ordained, "that there be a school founded, and a schoolmaster appointed in every parish not already provided ". For this purpose, the proprietors in every congregation were enjoined to meet, and to provide a suitable building for a school, and modify a salary to the schoolmaster which should not be under one hundred merks or above two hundred annually. A rate was to be imposed by the proprietors to maintain the schools and pay the schoolmasters, but if they could not agree among themselves to settle the matter, then in that case, the presbytery were to nominate twelve honest men within its bounds, who should be empowered to execute the work of establishing a school, which should be as valid as if the proprietors had done it themselves.1 But troubles came fast and thick upon the party then at the head of affairs, and this act was not put into operation.

In 1696, parliament anew enacted that a school and schoolmaster should be established in every parish not already provided, "by advice of the proprietors and the minister of the parish". As in the act of 1645, they were enjoined to provide a suitable building for a school, and settle a salary to a schoolmaster, which should not be under one hundred merks

1 Acts Parl. Scot., Vol. V., pp. 21, 367; Vol. VI., p. 216. One of the articles in the overture on the schools in 1641, was to this effect: "The Assembly would supplicate the parliament, that for youths of the finest and best spirits of the highlands and borders, maintenance may be allowed as to bursars, to be trained in the Universities" (p. 368.)

(five pounds and eleven shillings) sterling, or above two hundred merks (eleven pounds, two shillings, and twopence.) The proprietors were to pay a share of the rate according to their valued rent within the parish, "allowing each of them relief from his tenants of the half of his proportion for settling and maintaining of a school and payment of the schoolmaster's salary. . . If the proprietors, or a majority of them, shall not meet, or being met shall not agree among themselves, then in that case the presbytery shall apply to the commissioners of supply of the shire, who, or any five of them, shall have power to establish a school and settle and modify a salary for the schoolmaster, and to rate and lay on the same upon the proprietors according to their valued rent, which shall be as valid and effectual as if it had been done by the proprietors themselves. And because the proportion imposed upon each proprietor will be but small, therefore for the better and more ready payment thereof, it is ordained that if two terms' proportions run in the third unpaid then those that so fail in payment shall be liable in double of their proportions then resting, and in the double of every term's proportion that shall be resting thereafter, until the schoolmaster be completely paid, and that without any defalcation." 2 From this date the parish system of primary schools became established and continued without interruption, excepting in some parts of the Highlands, where parishes were so large as to render the act inoperative; but ultimately other means of providing elementary education in those remote parts of the kingdom were adopted.

Throughout this period there were elementary schools in many of the towns distinct from the grammar or borough schools. But it must be observed that the grammar schools or borough schools from an early period enjoyed a monopoly of teaching certain branches, being protected more or less strictly until recent times. Education like trade and everything else

2 Acts Parl. Scot., Vol. X., p. 63.

was subject to the spirit and the influences of the age, and a few examples of the modes of protection in this field may be interesting to many. In 1668, the town council of Edinburgh stated that it was illegal for any person to teach Latin or grammar within the city, except the masters of the high school, and that none residing within the town might send their children to be taught without the gates; nevertheless, several persons taught within the city, "to its public loss, and to the overthrow of the high school". And therefore they "ordained that no person upon any pretence whatever teach grammar within the city except at the schools of Leith, Canongate, and the readers' school of West Port, and that no inhabitant send their children to any other place within the liberties of the city; anyone teaching in contempt of this act shall be imprisoned, and parents sending their children elsewhere shall pay quarterly to the master of the high school as much as his other scholars".3 "the adventure schools seem to have gained ground on the high school in the course of 1684, when the doctors appeal for augmentation, because of the number of private schools which, if suppressed, will become their mortal enemies, slandering them to all concerned ".4

But

In 1686, the town of Wigton ordained that no other school but the borough one should be permitted there, except for girls to learn sewing, under a fine on the teachers of ten pounds quarterly, and five groats on parents for each child. The town council of Banff, in 1688, prohibited private schools within the borough under the penalty of banishment. In 1693, the council of Edinburgh ordered the doors of private schools to be closed; while, in 1698, the council of Stirling ordained that no child above six years of age should be taught in any school but the grammar school, no private school being permitted. The town council of Selkirk, in 1721,having appointed an English master,

3 Burgh Records of Edinburgh.

Grant's History of the Burgh Schools of Scotland, p. 136.