be followed by the present potential; as, he may learn."

"He should study that

EXERCISE 50.- Correct such examples as are faulty, and explain why. Analyze and parse.

1. Ye will not come that ye might have life. 2. He asks whether you could tell him the way. 3. I should be obliged to you if you will tell me. 4. I intended to take the morning train. 5. He said that you may come to-morrow. 6. I was afraid that he would die. 7. I designed to have written you long ago. 8. Cicero maintained that whatsoever was useful was good. 9. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 10. "The Romans flushed with success expected to have retaken it."-Hooke's History. 11. "If I should ask whether ice and water were two distinct species of things."-Locke. 12. "They told him that Jesus of Nazareth passeth by."-Bible 13. "Arts were of late introduced among them."-Blair. 14. "But if one went unto them from the dead they will repent."-Bible. 15. "I observed that love constituted the whole moral character of God."Dwight. 16. "Two young gentlemen who made a discovery that there was no God."-Swift. 17. "If he should succeed he will not be the happier for it."-Murray. 18. "There are several smaller faults which I at first intended to have enumerated."- Webster. 19. The experiment proved that gas was incombustible. 20. We hoped to have had a visit from you. 21. The furniture was to have been sold at auction. 22. I feared I should have lost it before night. 23. Asked how I could forbear to have punished him. 24. I was under no obligation to have adhered to that party. 25. He said it was many hundred miles

from Boston to St. Louis.

PART II.

LOGICAL ELEMENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE PRIMARY ELEMENTS.

SECTION I.-DIVISION OF LOGICAL ELEMENTS.

439. Having in Part I, discussed these elements with reference to the various verbal forms which they may assume; the different offices which they may perform in a proposition; and the proper method of their grammatical combination, we come now to consider them with regard to the nature of the thought which they express, or the specific logical force which they have in discourse.

440. We have seen that logical elements are divided into three classes;-viz: the Substantive, the Attributive, and the Predicative;—we have seen likewise that the Substantive term may perform two independent offices in a proposition, the Subjective and the Objective; the Attributive likewise two, the Adjective and the Adverbial; and the Predicative one, the Affirmative.

441. The Substantive term may perfor indeed five offices (193), but three of these are likewise referable to other classifications (205); so the Attributive term may perform three (247), one of which is thus referable, and the Predicative four (273), all of which are reducible to one in a given proposition (279).

442. Hence we have, with reference to the more general formations of elements five classes, viz :

1. The Subjective, and the Objective (Substantive). 3. The Adjective, and the Adverbial (Attributive). 5. The Affirmative (Predicative).

Of these five, two-the Subjective and the Predicative are

indispensable to the construction of a proposition, and hence are termed Primary Elements; while the others may or may not be used. When used, they are always the subordinates of the former, and hence are termed Secondary Elements.

SEC. II.—THE PRIMARY ELEMENTS, (Con.)
THE SUBJECT.

443. The subject is a thing or thought (233) of which something is affirmed. It may express in general,

They strike."

1. That which acts; as, 66
2. That which is acted upon; as,

66

They were struck." 3. The product or effect of an act; as, "Blows were struck." 4. A thing or thought with reference to some quality of the same; as, "Snow is white," "Truth is eternal."

5. A thing or thought with reference to some state or condition of the same; as, "Winds are blowing."

6. An individual or species with reference to a class or family to which it belongs; as, "The ox is a quadruped," "Quadrupeds are animals."

444. The Objective term in the active voice usually becomes the Subjective term in the passive voice; as, "Loved me," (Pass.) "I was loved."

445. When, however, the Objective term is of the phrase-form, that is, indirect, it cannot become the Subject of the passive voice, though by an idiom of our language, it may become the grammatical nominative (73); as, "Spoke to you." Pass. "You were spoken to." Here, in the passive form, "to you" is still the Object logically considered, while "you" is the grammatical nominative.

So, "Shewed a picture to me." Pass. "I was shown a picture." "Found fault with him." Pass. "He was found fault with." "Took possession of the country." Pass. "The country was taken possession of." In these examples the Subjects with the passive forms are respectively "picture," "fault," and possession," while the grammatical nominatives are "I," "he" and "country." See also 73.

66

446. Sometimes the subject in such cases is implied in the verb, or the verb may be said to be used impersonally,

"At

Pass.

that is, without any subject either expressed or implied, as, "Laughed at John." Pass. "John was laughed at."John there was a laughing." "Mourned over his loss." "His loss was mourned over."-" Over his loss there was a mourning." "Ran over them." Pass. "They were run over. "Over them there was a running." In these and similar examples the indirect object in the active voice is still the indirect object in the passive voice, though as a matter of grammar it becomes a nominative case-form.

447. REMARK. These expressions are grammatical anomalies, and are not permitted in the classical languages. They are always inelegant, and in some cases highly objectionable constructions, though sanctioned by the usage of some of our best writers.

448. Here the superiority of the syntactical structure of the Latin and the Greek is manifest. In those languages the grammatical regimen harmonizes with the logical element, whether in an active or in a passive regimen. Thus, "Dixit de te." Pass. "De te dictum est," not "Tu dictus est de," the strangely anomalous English form of construction.

EXERCISE 51.-Define the specific logical force of the different Subjective elements in the following.

Thus, "They labor." "They" is the subject and denotes

"Houses are built." notes the product or effect of the act.

9.

1. Birds sing. 2. Letters were written. 3. Ships were built. 4. Boys struck. 5. Boys were struck. 6. Blows were struck. 7. Men were killed. 8. Ships were burned. Flowers bloom. 10. Snow is white. 11. Tides flow. 12. Lead sinks. 13. Horses are quadrupeds. 14. Apples are 15. Cloth was woven.

fruit.

He is wise.

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.

A Declarative sentence.

remainder is the Pred.

66

66

16. Angels are happy. 17.

They were thought to be wise."

They to be wise " (96) is the Subj. and the

The Subj. is of the Inf. Dec. C-f.;-of which "they" is the Subj. of the S. W-f. and to be wise" is the Pred. of the Comp. V-f. (286) :-of which "to be" is the copula, and "wise" is the Comp. of the S. W-f.

"Whoever dreads punishment deserves it."

A Declarative sentence. "Whoever dreads punishment" is the Subj. and the remainder is the Pred.

The Subj. is of the Rel. Indef. C-f. (312) ;—of which "whoever" is the