SEC. XXI-MODE OF STATEMENT, (Con.)

EXCLUSION AND ASSEVERATION.

791. EXCLUSION limits the meaning of a given term or statement by formally excluding from the same all facts and objects which it might otherwise be thought to embrace; as, • All except you were present." Nothing was done except to

choose officers."

66

792. The word-for.n is an adverb, as only, barely, Iardly, simply, merely, scarcely, but, &c.; as, "He barely escaped," (and nothing more). "I did but speak," (and nothing more).

793. The phrase-form take the prepositions except, excepting, save, but. "All the passengers perished save one.'

66

794. The clause-form is a demonstrative participial or relative (adjunctive) clause; as, 'Nothing happened unfavorably except that he lost his money.” (Dem. cl.) (="except his having lost his money." Part. cl.)

795. Adjective Elements are found here; as, Only these." Here in the word-form the words only, alone, and the reflexive pronoun are used; as, "Thou alone." "I myself will do it." (=without any one else to help).

796. So the phrase-forms. "He is a host in himself." "I can effect it by myself."

797. Asseveration and Oath are to be regarded as adding emphasis rather than positiveness to an assertion; as, "No, as I am a man.”—Shak.

793. The phrase-form takes the preposition by; as, "By the gods 1 will not pursue them."-Xenophon.

799. The clause-form is a conjunctive clause introduced by as. A word of affirmation is really understood in this case, but need not be supplied in the analysis; as, "As I live, saith the Lord, I have no pleasure in the death of the wicked." (as truly as I live).

EXERCISE 97.-Analyze and define the Elements.

1. Sent you only three books. 2. Said that scarcely ten were saved. 3. Think the statement to be substantially correct. 4. Believe him to be hardly honest. 5. Inquired whether you alone were favorable to the cause. 6. Declares that he can accomplish the work himself. 7. We alone can do whatever we wish. 8. Thinks the river to be only ten feet in depth. 9. All the passengers save you and me. 10. Says that nothing happened adversely save their having lost their baggage.

Analyze, define the Elements, and parse.

6

12.

11. Books alone can never teach the use of books. "Nature is but a name for an effect, whose cause is God." 13. "I believe your city in itself to be much superior in strength." 14. "Without all contradiction the less is blessed of the better."-Heb. 15. When men are in calamity if we do but laugh we offend. 16. Virtue alone is happiness below. 17. He said unto Abner, whose son is this youth?' And Abner said, as thy soul liveth, O King, I cannot tell."Bible. 18. "The lady on the throne would have been frightened almost to distraction had she seen but any one of these spectres."—Addison. 19. "Now consider how great this man was, unto whom even the patriarch Abraham gave the tenth of his spoils."-Heb.

20.

"Claren is well spoken, and perhaps

May move your hearts to pity, if you mark him."- Shak.

21. "Where penury is felt the thought is chained,
And sweet colloquial pleasures are but few.'

800.

SEC. XXII.—EVIDENCE AND PROOF.

Evidence is that which enables the mind to judge of the truth or falsity of a proposition. When conclusive, it becomes proof; as, "He killed the man, for blood was found upon his clothes." (Evidence.) There was a frost last night, for the plants are all withered." (Proof)

801. When used for purposes of reasoning, Evidence is termed argument. Arguments are based, chiefly, upon the following forms of Evidence:

1. Personal Knowledge and Experience; as, "He was there, for I saw him." (Knowledge.) "It will rain soon, for the clouds look dark and heavy." (Experience.)

2. Testimony; as, "There must have been such a man as Hannibal, for all the historians assert it.”

3. The Relations of Cause and Effect; as,

66

Vegetation will thrive, for the weather is warm." (From Cause to Effect.) It must have been a cold night, for the thermometer fell below zero." (From Effect to Cause.)

4. Analogy, or Parity of Reasoning; as, "The ship will arrive in safety, for she has made a hundred voyages already with safety."

802.

An argument so expressed that the conclusiveness of it is evident from the mere form of expression alone, independently of the signification of the terms used, is called a Syllogism; as, "Every X is Y: Z is X: therefore Z is Y.

803. In a Syllogism the first proposition (X is Y,) is called the Major Premise The second (Z is X,) is called the Minor Premise. The last (Z is Y,) is termed the Conclusion. Now the Conclusion always possesses the same degree of verity as the Premises upon which it is based; as, X is probably Y: Z is X: therefore Z is probably Y.

804. Any terms whatever may be substituted for these letters and the Conclusion must follow; as,

Affirmative Syllogism:

All tyrants deserve death.

Cæsar is a tyrant.

Therefore Cæsar deserves death.

Negative Syllogism :

No predaceous animals are ruminant.
The lion is a predaceous animal.

Therefore the lion is not ruminant.

805. Ordinarily, in discourse, one premise is suppressed. to abridge the argument. Such an argument is called an Enthymeme; as, "Cæsar was a tyrant, therefore he deserved death;" or, "Cæsar deserved death, for he was a tyrant." "The lion is not ruminant, for he is a predaceous animal.” 806. The Conclusion, when deduced from Premises expressing mathematical or abstract truths, is termed a Demonstration; as, 66 Things equal to the same thing are equal to each other." "X is equal to Y, Z is equal to Y." "Therefore X is equal to Z." (Demonstration).

807. The word-forms of Evidence and Proof are chiefly adverbs; as, manifestly, evidently, obviously, plainly, clearly, palpably, &c. (Knowledge and Experience.) Undoubtedly, incontrovertibly, &c. (Testimony.)

808. The phrase-form takes the prepositions, from, by, in, and a few others; as, We know this from personal observation," -"from testimony,' "from our own experience,' -"by report," &c.

809. The clause-form is usually a Conj. clause introduced by the connectives because, since, inasmuch as, for, &c., as in the preceding examples.

810. REASON. The Evidence or Proof of a given fact is at the same time the reason of our believing or knowing the same. Thus, "We must die, for all before us have died." (Proof, from Analogy) Again, "We know that we must die, for all before us have died." Here, now, the proof in the former case, becomes the reason of our knowledge in the latter.

811. Hence, Evidence and Proof may be said to be in a sense Objective, (i. e pertaining to things without) and Reason Subjective, (i. e. concerning our mental status,) in a given case.

66

812. Care must be taken not to confound these four very important elements, viz: Antecedent Cause, Occasion, Evidence and Proof, and Reason. Since in the clause-form they all may take the same connectives, they are particularly liable to be confounded. Thus, The flowers were frozen last night, for the weather was very cold," (Cause); for they were uncovered," (Occasion); for they are dry and withered," (Evidence); for they are stiff and dead," (Proof); but " I think (or know) they were frozen last night, for, &c.," using either of the above, (Reason); since in either case the clause in question would furnish the reason merely of my thinking or knowing.

EXERCISE 98.-Analyze, define the Elements, and parse. Distinguish carefully Cause, Occasion, Evidence and Proof, and Reason, also the different kinds of Evidence.

1. It rained last night, for the ground is wet. 2. The cars have arrived and gone, for the coaches are leaving the depot. 3. I know there was a place called Palmyra, because many historians assert it. 4. The man was evidently killed, for he was never after seen. 5 It will probably storm soon, for the mercury falls rapidly. 6 The soldiers fought bravely, for they loved their country. 7. I believe the planets are inhabited, since otherwise their creation would seem to be useless. 8. "With many of them God was not well pleased, for they were overthrown in the wilderness." 9." By faith, Moses, when he was born, was hid three months of his parents, because they saw he was a proper child."-Bible. 10. "With whomsoever thou findest thy Gods let him not live. Before our brethren, discern thou what is thine with me, and take it For Jacob knew not that Rachel had stolen them."

to thee. Bible.

CHAPTER VII.

THE LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP OF THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE IN A PROPOSITION.

813. We have seen that two distinct elements, a subject and a predicate, are indispensable to the structure of a proposition. Now propositions are essential to the communication of thought. Let us examine the philosophy of this.

814. The communication of thought supposes two things,

1. Certain facts known to the speaker, which are not known to the hearer.

2. Certain facts known to both in common. Hence, when the knowledge possessed by the speaker and the hearer is precisely the same in quantity and kind; or when the knowledge of the one is entirely distinct from the knowledge of the other so that they have no facts in common, communication is impossible, since nothing new can be given in the one case, and nothing can be made intelligible in the other.

814. Hence, then, two elements are indispensable to intellectual communication, viz: 1. Facts known only to the speaker. 2. Facts known to both speaker and hearer. The former always constitutes the subject, in a given proposition, the latter the predicate; that is, the subject always embraces the facts and conceptions in the mind of the speaker; the predicate, facts and conceptions familiar to speaker and hearer.

815. Now the communication of thought, consists simply in the speaker's creating in the mind of the hearer, out of his store of knowledge, conceptions similar to those in his own mind. This he does through the mediumship of verbal signs or language. Thus A wishes to give to B an idea of a pearl. B has no conception whatever of the object, but he has very perfect ideas of color, form, magnitude, &c.

816. Hence, we have the two elements of a proposition. A's conception of a pearl, unknown to B, and B's knowledge of the qualities and attributes of matter in general, in com