SEC. II. THE SIMPLE ELEMENT.

152. A simple element, as we have seen, consists of a single word-form, phrase-form, or clause-form, unmodified.

Predicative terms, however, with their various modifications by auxiliaries, or otherwise, used to indicate voice, mood and tense, are considered simple word-forms. (66) Thus, “ Am loved,” "Shall be loved," "Might have been loved," "To have been

loved."

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REMARK. In the ancient languages, the above and similar forms of thought are expressed by a single word. Thus: "Amor," "am loved." "Amabor," "shall be loved." "Amavissem," might have been loved." "Amavisse," to have loved."

153. Clause-forms are considered simple unless the entire clause is modified (148): i. e., the substantive term, as well as the predicative term. Hence, the substantive term of a clause may be complex, or the predicative term may be complex, while the clause itself, as such, is simple. Thus, "That the MAN whom I saw should perish." Here we have a simple clause, with a complex substantive term. "That the man SHOULD PERISH because he was not fed." Here the predicative term, simply, is complex. "That the man should perish, what I was sorry to hear." Here we have a complex clause.

EXERCISE 15.-Analyze according to the previous illustration. 1. Learns. 2. Learns rapidly. 3. Was learning. 4. Might have learned. 5. Might have been learning rapidly. 6. To study and to learn. 7. To study hard, and to learn rapidly. 8. To have been laboring continually. 9. Labors for money. 10. That your friend has come, what you desired. 11. (Make) him learn. 12. (Saw) them walking. 13. (Heard) drums beating, something new. 14. Believe him a thief, what many have suspected. 15. Might have been stealing money. That he was in fault.

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SEC. III. THE COMPLEX ELEMENT-THE BASETHE COMPLEX BASE.

154. The complex element, as we have seen, consists of a simple word-form, phrase-form, or clause-form and some modifier or attributive element logically combined. Now the former of these constituents, since it is always the leading conception, is called the BASE. Thus, "True goodness," "Very generous,"

"In my home," "Because they came, which was a matter of surprise." Here the italicised words constitute the base.

155. Any expression which may constitute a word-form, may, of course, constitute a base; as, "Good books," "We, ourselves," "Moves rapidly," "More noble," "Very well," "Far beneath," "Little above."

156. A base, with reference to a given modifier, may, together with such a modifier, constitute a second, or complex base, with reference to another modifier; again, this modifier, together with such complex base, may constitute a third base with reference to another modifier, and so on. Thus, "Fragrant red roses.' Here"roses is the base with reference to "red;" but "red roses" is the base with reference to "fragrant;" for the sense is not "fragrant roses," but "fragrant red roses.” 157. Again," Large fragrant red roses." Here "fragrant red roses" is the base with reference to "large," as is evident from the sense. "Those large fragrant red roses." Now, "large fragrant red roses "is evidently the base of the modifier "those," and is the fourth successive base in order.

158. So the phrase-form, thus: "By walking, in the street, with friends, by moonlight, for an hour." Here we have four successive bases. It will be observed that the order of the modifiers in the phrase-form is the reverse of that in the word-form. In the latter, the first base comes last, in order of collocation. In the former, it comes first. Thus, "Those large FRAGRANT RED ROSES" "BY WALKING, IN THE STREET, WITH FRIENDS, by moonlight, for an hour."

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The clause-form, likewise, is susceptible of this construction. 159. The class of an element is determined always by the base. Thus : Bunches of flowers" is of the word-form, because the base, "bunches," is a word-form. "By studying grammar is of the phrase-form, because the base, "by studying," is a phrase-form. "That the earth revolves, a well known fact,” is of the clause-form; but, "the fact, that the earth revolves," is of the word-form.

EXERCISE 16.-Analyze according to the illustration.

ILLUSTRATION. "My house." It is an El. of the Cx. w-f.; of which house is the B., and modified by "my"; an El. of the S. Poss. P-f.

Those white lilies." An El. of the Cx.W-f.; of which "lilies" is the

first B., and modified by white ; an El. of the S. W-f. "White lilies," is the Sec. B. and modified by " those," an El. of the S. W-f.

"By crossing mountains on mules."

An El. of the Cx. P-f.; of which" By crossing" is the B. of the S. P-f. and modified by "mountains," an El. of the S. W-f.," By crossing mountains" is a Sec. B. and modified by "on mules" an El. of the S. P-f.

"That light is material, which some doubt."

An El. of the Dem. Cx. C-f.; of which "That light is material" is the B. of the Dem. C-f., and modified by "which some doubt," an El. of the Rel. C-f.

"Marched before it was light."

An El. of the Cx. W-f.; of which " Marched" is the B. of the S. W-f. and modified by "before it was light," an El. of the Conj. C-f. (31.)

1. A great house. 2. Fragrant white roses. 3. Large brick houses. 4. We, ourselves. 5. Cicero, the orator. 6. With immense force. 7. Works diligently. 8. Friends whom I love. 9. Believes that the earth is stationary. 10. Doubts that the soul is immortal. 11. Those English histories. 12. His large gold watch. 13. Several huge, black, English iron ships. To read by gas-light. 15. To study about art. 16. By lecturing on Astronomy to students. 17. Said what he would do. 18. Told when you came. 19. Asked where they were. That he was guilty, a plain fact. 21. Knew of his coming. 22. Sat with his hands folded.

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20.

Write sentences containing complex elements having complex bases.

SEC. IV. THE COMPLEX ELEMENT, (Continued).

THE MODIFIER OR SUBORDINATE.

160. The modifying term in a complex element, is called a subordinate. A subordinate of any class or order may modify a given base of any class or order. Thus, subordinates of the wordform, or phrase-form, may modify bases of the clause-form; or subordinates of the clause-form, may modify bases of the wordform, or phrase-form, &c. For example,

BASE C-f. Sub. (1) W-f. (2) P-f.

"That men fight, a mystery."
"As there was no bread, by reason of fam
ine.."

(3) C-f.

"That the planets are inhabited, what many believe."

So, likewise, the base or the subordinate in the above, might in each case be, S., Cx., or Cd.

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161. NOTE 1. A subordinate of a given class may be frequently changed into one of another class. Thus: "Walks rapidly." (=with rapidity.)" "Generous men." (=of generosity who are generous.)

162. NOTE 2. Subordinate elements of the word-form and phrase form are sometimes conjunctive (67), as, "Salute him as king." "Better to do than to talk."

163. Subordinates of the word-form usually precede, those of the phrase-form and clause-form usually follow the bases which they respectively modify.

EXERCISE 17. Analyze according to the illustration. ILLUSTRATION. "Men of genius."

An El. of the Cx. W-f.; of which " Men " is the B. of the S. W-f., and modified by "of genius," an El. of the S. P-f.

"That man should die, a melancholy fact."

An El. of the Dem. Cx. C-f.; of which "That man should die" is the B. of the S. Dem. C-f., and modified by "a melancholy fact," an El. of the Cx. W-f.; of which "fact" is the B. of the S. W-f., and modified by "melancholy," an El. of the S. W-f. Melancholy fact" is the Sec. B., and modified by "a," an El. of the S. W-f.

"Plans for their leaving the city."

An El. of the Cx. W-f. ; of which "plans" is the B. of the S. W-f., and modified by "for their leaving the city, an El. of the Adjunc. Part. C-f., &c.

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1. Very beautiful. 2. Lincoln's administration. 3. Our friends. 4. City of Boston. 5. Kings of France. 6. Laws of Moses. 7. With great care. 8. Stillness of death. 9. Shines with brilliancy. 10. Reared in opulence. 11. Went to learn. 12. Said that he would go. 13. Looks where he leaps. Labor whereby he lives. 15. Lawgiver from beneath my feet. (79) 16. Almanac for this year. 17. Excellent gold watches. 18. Men whom I saw. 19. Cities which he passed. 20. Fights for pay. 21. Clouds in the air. 22. Ten fine black Canadian ponies. 23. The promise that he would go. 24. If the planets are inhabited, a probable supposition. 25. Said that the planets revolve and that the stars are fixed. 26. Saw the soldiers advancing. 27. Heard you speak. 28. Prevented his speaking. 29. Heard of your speaking.

SEC. V. THE COMPLEX ELEMENT, (Continued) THE COMPLEX SUBORDINATE.

164. A subordinate with reference to a given base may, together with such a base, constitute a complex subordinate with reference to another base; and this again, with such complex base, may constitute a third subordinate with reference to still another base; as, "Most capacious dwellings." Here, "Most" is the subordinate with reference to " capacious," but "Most capacious" is the subordinate of "dwellings;" for the sense is not "capacious dwellings," but "Most capacious dwellings."

165. Again, "Much (the) most capacious dwelling." Here "Much" is the subordinate of "most ;" and the complex element "much most," is the subordinate of "capacious ;" and the complex form, "much most capacious" is the subordinate of "dwelling."

166. Complex subordinates must be carefully distinguished from complex bases (156). The sense will always determine; thus: "Several black horses." Here we have a Cx. base, with reference to "several," for the sense is not "several horses," but "several black horses." Again, "Very black horses." In this case, very" simply modifies "black;" in the other, "several" modifies "black horses." Hence the difference is manifest.

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167. NOTE. Observe the difference in the following, as indicated by the italicised words; "Fragrant red roses." Extremely red roses." "More beautiful houses." "Those beautiful houses." "To live in the city, from choice." "To live in the city of Boston."

168. Sometimes the same element contains both a complex base and a complex subordinate; as, "Very black Arabian horses." Here, "Arabian horses," is the complex base of "very black," which is a complex subordinate; for the sense is not, "very black-Arabian-horses;" nor "very-black-Arabian horses;" nor very black-Arabian horses;" but, "very-black Arabian

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horses."

169. NOTE. When there are several subordinates of different classes (114), the logical order of modification is not always manifest, since some are placed before and some after the base. Thus: "Elegant combs of ivory." Now, does "elegant" modify "combs of ivory," or does "of ivory" modify" elegant combs ?"—that is, does it mean, "elegant combs of ivory," or " elegant combs of ivory?" In such cases the sense will always determine. Make the subordinates of the same class, and the true order will become apparent. Thus "elegant ivory