3. When the antecedent is a term, which denotes a number of persons (all of whom are males, or all females), as one collective whole, the neuter form of the pronoun is used; as, "The army forced its way." "The ladies sewing circle discontinued its sessions."

4. The base of a complex element should be considered in determining the gender form of the following pronoun; as, "One man of the company lost his life." "The mother of the boys earned her own livelihood." 5. Phrase-forms and clause-forms being merely expressions of thought, and not the names of animate beings, must be followed by the neuter form of the pronoun; as, "That light is material is a mere theory; it has never been proved."

us."

SEC. III-CASE.

332. Case, logically considered, is the relation which one object, act, thought, or idea, holds to another; as, "The sky above Here we have in the P-f. a case-relation of place. "The hour before noon." Here we have a case-relation of time. "John's knife." Here we have in the Poss. P-f. a case-relation of possession. "Skillful in law." Here we have a case-relation of

specification.

333. It is evident that the number of relations which may thus exist between objects, thoughts, or acts, is very great. This belongs to the department of logical analysis, and is therefore discussed at length in Part II.

334. Case, grammatically considered, is a verbal form or inflection used to indicate a given logical relation. Thus, caseforms in our language, are, for the most, phrases, since phraseforms indicate substantive elements under certain relations (68). Inflections are used, however, as in the possessive ending of the substantive, and the possessive and objective forms of the five pronouns, I, thou, he, she and who. Hence we have really as many grammatical cases as we have phrase-forms (70) and case-endings; for every verbal expression whereby we express a logical relation is really a case-form. Hence, likewise, the number of case-forms, as well as the number of case-relations, is very great.

335. As a matter of grammatical regimen, case concerns chiefly the proper use of nouns with reference to their endings or case-inflections. Of these, nouns have two, the nominative and the possessive; as, John, John's; and the five pronouns above indicated, three, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective; as, he, his, him; who, whose, whom, &c. To save confusion, however, all substantive terms, whether nouns or pronouns, are considered as having three case-forms, though the nom

inative-form, and the objective-form, in the case of the noun are precisely the same.

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336. The base of a complex element should be considered in determining its case regimen with other elements. "John's friend was" (nom. case). "I only of you am (nom. case). "Told a friend of mine (obj. case). 'I, who came, am." " 'He, who came, is." Thou, who camest, art." 337. Phrase-forms and clause-forms are of course incapable of any case-form, though they may, and often do, have case-relations (79, 80).

338. It should be noted, that, at least, nine-tenths of all the mistakes made in the matter of case, occur in the improper use of the above mentioned pronouns; and that, moreover, a large proportion of the errors in the use of the pronouns, occur in the ungrammatical use of the relative who.

SEC. IV.-NUMBER.

339. Number, as a matter of grammar, is like gender and case, a verbal-form, or inflection. In our language there are two number-forms only; one for single objects, termed therefore the singular, and one for any number of objects more than one, termed the plural, from the Latin plures=many.

340. REMARK. In some languages, as the Greek, there are three number-forms, one of a single object, one for two objects, and one for any number of objects more than two.

341. Number, in its logical significance, has reference to the actual numerical quantity of objects under consideration. (See Part II.) Hence, logically, the number of numbers is infinite.

342. With respect to grammatical regimen when the form and the fact are at variance, the number, in point of fact, controls the construction. Hence, words plural in form, but singular in logical force, have a singular construction; as, "The news is." "His wages was reduced." But "The scissors cut" (not cuts). "" "The bellows are (not is), &c.. because, though these objects are each really one instrument, yet they are thought of with reference to the two parts which compose them. Thus we say a pair of scissors, &c.

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343. When the form is singular, on the other hand, but the sense is plural, the construction is plural; as, "Forty sail were." A large number were."

344. When several objects are considered merely as one collective whole, the regimen is singular; when with reference to the individuals composing the whole, the regimen is plural. "The court held its sessions" (not their). "The court were divided in their sentiments" (not its, &c.).

345. The base of a complex element must be considered in determining its construction as regards number; as, "One of the men is."

Many a flower is." "Every child is." "Six months pay is." "Each of them was." "The mechanism of watches is." "The emotions of the soul are." "The exigencies of war are." "He who is." 66 They who are." "One only among thousands was."

346. Copulative compound elements connected by and simply, or both and, are considered plural; all other compound elements are considered singular, unless the co-ordinates themselves are plural ( ); as, James and John are." "James or John is." "Not James but John is." James as well as John is." "James and John also is." "James and John likewise is." "Charles with his father was."

347. Copulative Compound Elements connected by and,

1. When the several co-ordinates make reference to a single person or thing, are considered singular; as, "The saint, the father, and the husband, prays." (Sing.)

2. When the several co-ordinates together express a single idea, are considered singular; as, " All work and no play makes." (Sing.) "Two and two makes." (Sing.)

3. When the several co-ordinates express substantially the same thing are considered singular; as, "Why is dust and ashes proud?" (Sing.) "Flesh and blood hath not revealed it." (Sing.)

348. Copulative compound elements modified by each, every or no, however, are singular; as, "Each book and each paper is.

349. Phrase-forms and clause-forms, as such, are considered singular. Number is of grammatical importance only as it concerns the regimen of pronouns with their antecedents, verbs with their nominatives, and adjectives with their bases.

SEC. V. PERSON.

350. Person, as a grammatical distinction, is confined to the personal pronoun. There are three person-forms, viz: I, thou and he, (or she). Person concerns simply the construction of pronouns with their antecedents, and verbs with their nominatives.

351. The base of complex elements must be considered in determining their regimen in regard to person; as, "I your friend am." "Thou the traitor art." "We the people are." "Told me who am."

352. Compound elements, whose co-ordinates are of different persons, are considered of the first person, when that person is represented among the co-ordinates; and of the second, if the second and third are represented only; as, "He and you and I are attached to our homes." "He and you are attached to your homes." "He and I are attached to our homes.

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353. All substantive words, whether of the word-form, the phraseform, or the clause-form, are considered of the third person in grammatical construction.

SEC. VI.-MOOD.

354. All things whatsoever, about which we may write or speak, are of necessity either facts or conceptions; that is, things existing or that have existed in the world; or things merely conceived of in the mind. Now mood, logically considered, has reference to this truth, and hence there are, logically, two leading mools; viz: the Fact-mood and the Ideal-mood.

355. A fact may be single and solitary, habitual, or oft repeated; as, "America was discovered in 1492." "The tide ebbs and flows." "Vir

tue produces happiness." "People go to church." "He kept striking me." A fact likewise may have reference to one time and place, or to all times and all places equally; as, "The stars shine." "The future is endless." Here these various fact distinctions give rise to a number of logical moods. There may be also in the mind, of course, a great variety of conceptions, as of things desired, designed, contemplated; things possible, prob ble, necessary, contingent, hypothetical, &c. Hence, these logical moods regarding the various kinds of conceptions, are very numerous.

356. Mood, grammatically considered, is a form of the predicative, used to indicate the above logical distinctions. For want of a sufficiency of mood-forms, many of the above moodrelations are expressed by separate elements.

357. The mood-forms, in our language, are seven in number. These, however, are classified under five names; as follows:

1. The Indicative forms; as, He is, he loves, keeps loving, is wont to love.

2. The Sabjunctive forms; as, (if) He be, (if) he love.

3. The Potential forms; as, He may be, can be, must be, would be, should be.

4. The Infinitive forms; as, (permit) Him to be,—to love. 5. The Participial forms; as, (permit) His being,-loving.

358. Facts are expressed by the Indicative-form. So also events considered as certain as facts, though they have not yet transpired, are expressed by the (future) Indicative-form; as, "The sun will rise to-morrow."

359. Conceptions are expressed by the other mood-forms; as, Subjunctive." Shall go if it be a pleasant day." (Condition.) Potential." I may go." (Possibility.) "Desire him to come.' (Wish.) "Anticipate his coming." (A mere conception.)

360. REMARK. The Infinitive and Participial forms are likewise often used in the statement of facts; as, "We saw the (ship to) sail." "Saw the ship sailing It should be noted likewise that both these forms often have the force of a Substantive or Adjective.

361. REMARK. What is termed the Imperative Mood in our language, presents no new modal-form. Hence, it is not a grammatical distinction. As regards the method of

statement, a verb may be used Imperatively. So, likewise, it may be used Declaratively, or Interrogatively (273); but we do not for this reason add to our list of moods a Declarative mood, or an Interrogative mood, since the distinctions indicated by these terms are entirely different from those indicated by the Moods. We see no reason therefore for an Imperative mood, any more than for an Interrogative mood, an Exclamatory mood, or a Declarative mood. These terms have already, for different reasons, been appropriated to sentences and to clauses (287).

362. Logically, tense denotes the time of an act. Manifestly, the time of every act must be in the present, the past, or the future. Hence, there can be logically considered only three leading tenses.

363. There may be, however, in each of these three divisions of time, various subordinate temporal relations, regarding the beginning, ending, or duration of an act, or the time of its occurrence with reference to the time of an other act.

364. Grammatically, tense is a verbal-form, used to indicate these temporal relations. There are, at least, eighteen tenseforms of the Indicative mood in common use. These are classified, however, under six names, as follows:

1. Present forms. Love, am loving, am about to love, am going to love.

2. Present-Perfect forms. Have loved, have been loving.

3. Past forms. Loved, was loving, was about to love, was going to love.

4. Past-Perfect forms. Had loved, had been loving.

5. Future forms. Shall love, shall be loving, shall be about to love.

6. Future-Perfect forms. Shall have loved, shall have been loving.

The Subjunctive Mood has only two tense-forms, viz:

1. Present form. Be; as, (if) "He be."

2. Past form. Were; as, (if)" He were."

The Potential Mood has four tense-forms, viz:

1. Present form. May be, can be, must be. To be about to be. 2. Present-perfect form. May have been, can have been, &c. 3. Past form. Might be, could be, would be, should be.

4. Past-perfect form. Might have been, could have been, &c. The Infinitive Mood has only two tense-forms, viz :

1. Present form. To be, to live.

2. Present-perfect form. To have been, to have loved. The Participial Mood has two tense-forms, viz:

1. Present form. Being, loving.

2. Present-perfect form. Been, loved.