himself in the sovereignty of Macedonia. Philip, then in his dotage, listened to these infamous surmises, and cruelly put Demetrius to death by poison. Tortured by remorse, he sunk into profound melancholy, and died a short time after. Among the first acts of the administration of Perseus was an alliance with several of the Grecian states to make war against the Romans. We have already, in treating of the Grecian history, seen the issue of this war in the total defeat of Perseus, who was brought captive to Rome to adorn the triumph of Paulus Æmilius, and in the reduction of Macedonia, which now became a province of the Roman empire.

A few years after this time began the Third Punic war, which terminated in the destruction of Carthage. Massinissa, king of Numidia, who at the time of Scipio's great successes in Africa had become the ally of the Romans, was the cause of this war. The Numidians had seized some territories belonging to Carthage; and a war ensued, in which the Carthaginians were much weakened. The son of Massinissa, a barbarian in every sense, slaughtered in cold blood 58,000 of the Carthaginians after they had laid down their arms. The Romans with great meanness laid hold of that season of calamity to declare war, and their subsequent conduct was equally infamous and disgraceful. The Carthaginians, weakened and dispirited, conscious of their utter inability to withstand this formidable power, made the most humble submission, offering even to acknowledge themselves the subjects of Rome. The senate promised to show them every degree of favor, on condition that they should perform what the consuls required of them, and send three hundred hostages of high rank as a security of that obligation. With natural reluctance, but unsuspicious of treachery, they gave this great pledge, and sent the hostages to Rome. A consular army immediately landed in Africa, and there required, in a solemn manner, that the Carthaginians should give up all the arms and military stores contained in their magazines. "You are now," said they, "under the protection of the Romans, and have no need of arms." In vain they urged, that they were surrounded by enemies, and needed them for their defence. All remonstrance was ineffectual, and they were obliged to submit. The most infernal treachery followed. Bereft of arins, the Carthaginians were in no condition to refuse whatever terms should be proposed. They sent deputies to the Roman camp, to know what had been the determination of the senate with regard to their fate. They were now informed by the consul that it was finally resolved that they should abandon their city, which the senate had decreed should be rased to its foundations; but that they were to be allowed to build on any other part of their territory, provided it was at ten miles' distance from the sea. The amazement and affliction with which these orders were received, are not to be described. The deputies threw

i

themselves upon the ground, shed tears like children, and endeav ored by every motive of compassion and argument of reason to prevail on the consul to depart from this inhuman resolution. But all was in vain. The deputies were ordered instantly to return to Carthage, and to intimate the final determination of the Romans, and the necessity for an immediate compliance.

Despair and frenzy seized the inhabitants of the city upon this fatal intelligence. They prepared for a frantic exertion of resistance, unanimously resolving that death only should separate them from the temples and altars of their gods, the dwellings of their fathers, and the lands of their nativity. Orders were immediately given to barricade the gates of the city; every hand was active in preparation for defence. Arms were formed from every material which could supply them; the women parted with their ornaments of precious metal, and even cut off their hair to form bowstrings. The temples and palaces of the city were turned into workhouses for the fabrication of military engines; the men worked night and day without intermission, the women bringing their victuals at stated hours, and assisting themselves in every labor to which their strength was equal. The Romans now found that they had to do with a people who would defend themselves to the last extremity.

Asdrubal, the nephew of Hannibal, whom the Carthaginians had imprisoned for insulting the Romans, was now called to take the chief command of the forces of his country; and in a desperate engagement he would have cut to pieces the Roman army, had it not been for a masterly stroke of Scipio Emilianus,* who covered their retreat while they fled across the river. The merit of Scipio was so conspicuous on this occasion, that at Rome he was unanimously chosen consul, though he was but thirty-seven years of age, and the age required by law for that high office was forty-three. He was likewise invested with the sole command of the African war, a charge which he soon fulfilled by reducing the Carthaginians to such extremity that they offered to submit to any conditions, provided only their city might be preserved. But this condition Scipio had it not in his power to grant. In a strong assault on one of the gates, he broke it down, and entering with a large force penetrated to the citadel, which sustained a siege of several days, while the Romans were in possession of the town. At length it was surrendered. Scipio, unwilling to destroy this proud and splendid capital, sent to Rome for further orders. But these contained no mercy for Carthage. The city was set fire to in many different quarters. Pillage, carnage, and desolation. ensued. The conflagration lasted for seventeen days. At the

* The son of Æmilius Paulus, and, by adoption, the grandson of Scipio Afri

canus

recital of a scene of this kind, it is impossible to restrain our indignation, and not to execrate that barbarous policy which prescribes a conduct so contrary to every worthy feeling of the human mind. Thus ended the ill-fated Carthage, in the 607th year from the building of Rome, and the 146th before the Christian era.

The same year was remarkable for the destruction of Corinth, and the entire extinction of the liberties of Greece. It had for some time been the policy of the Romans to keep up divisions among the different states, and thus artfully to substitute themselves as umpires in their quarrels, or excite them to weaken and destroy each other. The Achaians, as we have seen, furnished the chief obstacle to the accomplishment of their design, and obliged them to resort to force in order to reduce them to submission. Metellus, the prætor, began the war, which was terminated by Mummius, the consul, who took Corinth by storm and utterly destroyed it. Greece was immediately afterwards reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achaia.

This was the era of the commencement of a taste for the fine arts at Rome, to which the knowledge of Asiatic luxuries had successfully paved the way. "How happy for mankind," says Abbé Millot, "could a nation be distinguished at once for its virtue and its refinement, and become polished and enlightened while it retained a purity of morals!" But this is a beautiful impossibility

BOOK THE FOURTH.

CHAPTER I.

Sedition of the Gracchi-Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi-Criminal ambition of Jugurtha-The Romans declare war against him, under Metellus and Marius- Death of Jugurtha-Invasion of the Cimbri-Progress of corruption in the Republic-Livius Drusus's projects of Reform-The Social War-Origin of the civil War-Rivalship of Marius and Sylla-War with Mithridates Marius and Cinna-Sylla obtains absolute authority-His proscriptionsHis, salutary Reforms-He resigns the Dictatorship Lepidus defeated and slain- Pompey distinguishes himself- Lucullus's war against MithridatesHe is superseded by Pompey-Conspiracy of Catiline-Extent of the design -Punishment of the Conspirators-Catiline is killed in battle-Ambitious designs of Julius Cæsar-First triumvirate-Agrarian Law-Cæsar's increase of power-His design for the removal of Cicero-Cicero's pusillanimous conduct He goes into Exile - His Estates confiscated-Caesar's Military Ex ploits in Gaul-Pompey procures the recall of Cicero-Death of Crassus, and rivalship of Pompey and Cæsar.

THE Romans, as we have seen, had now, within the period of a very few years, accomplished the total destruction of the Carthaginian empire, the most formidable rival of their power, and had added to their own dominion Spain, Sicily, Macedonia, Greece, and a large portion of Asia. These immense conquests, while they aggrandized the Roman name and diffused the terror of their arms over a great part of the globe, introduced at home that corruption which is the consequence of wealth, and that luxury which consumes the patriotic spirit. Disorders now arose in the commonwealth which undermined its constitution, and ultimately, and even by rapid steps, accomplished its destruction.

At this period arose Tiberius and Caius Gracchus-two brothers, of plebeian blood by their father's side, but ennobled by civic hon

and on their mother's side, by descent from the illustrious Scipio Africanus. Their mother, Cornelia, was wont to stimulate their ambition by this generous reproach: "Why, my sons, must I ever be called the daughter of Scipio, rather than the mother of the Gracchi ?” Tiberius, the elder, had borne the charge of Quæstor in Spain; and, being called to account with great severity by the senate upon his return, he conceived a high animosity against that body, and a strong predilection in favor of the popu

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lar interest in the state. On that side, he conceived, lay his path of ambition; and the corruptions in the higher order, from their overgrown fortunes, contrasted with the indigence and hardships of the lower class, afforded a plausible, and in some measure a just pretence for a corrective of that inequality.

Tiberius possessed every accomplishment for a popular leader; a bold and intrepid mind, inflexible perseverance, and a nervous and copious elocution. An enthusiast by nature, it is not improbable, however warped by prejudice, that he had actually persuaded himself that his views were virtuous and patriotic. Being elected a tribune of the people, his first measure was to propose the revival of an ancient statute, the Licinian law, which prohibited any Roman citizen from possessing above five hundred jugera, or about two hundred and sixty acres of land. To conciliate the rich to this restitution, the superfluous land in their possession was to be paid for, at a just price, from the treasury of the state, and distributed in certain proportions to the poor. The patricians, as might have been expected, opposed this measure with keen and indignant zeal; and, according to their customary policy, gained over to their side Octavius, one of the tribunes, and by this means secured a veto. The proposition would otherwise have been carried by a great majority in the assembly of the tribes. Tiberius, enraged at this disappointment, now adopted a measure equally violent and unconstitutional. The veto of the tribunes, which was the surest guard of the popular interest, had ever been respected as a sacred authority. Tiberius was resolved to render it vain and nugatory. He immediately proposed that Octavius should be deprived of his tribuneship. It was in vain that every sound patriot saw the illegality of this proposal, and remonstrated against it as fatal to the constitution. Octavius was deposed by a majority of suffrages, and the revival of the Licinian law was carried with a triumphant hand.

Stimulated by this first success, the zeal of Tiberius now meditated another blow against the aristocracy. He procured a law to be passed, which decreed that the treasures bequeathed to the republic by Attalus, king of Pergamus, and which the senate had hitherto administered for state purposes, should be fairly accounted for and distributed among the poorer citizens; and, as the term of his own tribunate was about to expire, he solicited to be continued in the office for another year, that he might bring to a conclusion his important plan of reform.

Even the populace themselves, who had hitherto supported him, were aware of the illegality of this measure, which tended directly to establish an arbitrary authority in the state, without limitation of period. On the day of election the assembly was ill attended, and the first tribes which were called to vote gave their suffrage against Tiberius. His friends adjourned the assembly till next day; and in the interval Tiberius with his children walked