given to liberated slaves. In the ancient images of the Popes, all who preceded the reign of Constantine are represented with the head uncovered; Sylvester, who was contemporary with him, appears with the simple Roman cap. Papebroeck conjectures that the reason of this is that when peace was granted to the Church by Constantine, Sylvester, either of his own accord, or by order of the emperor, took the cap as the symbol of liberty, according to Roman usage.* The Bollandists concur in this view, and explain its signification as relating to the liberation of the Church by Constantine, from heathenish oppression, and the many immunities which he granted to her.† Novaes, a Portuguese, writing at Rome in the beginning of the present century, adopts the same opinion, and expressly says, that the tiara was originally the Roman cap, the symbol of liberty. An ornamental circle, which is called by many a crown, is observable around the lower part, in the ancient pictures of the Popes who succeeded Sylvester; but there is no evidence of any coronation of a Pope before the time of Nicholas I., in the middle of the ninth century, or at least before Leo III., in 795. I, therefore, incline to believe, that this ornament was first added when the Popes had acquired a temporal principality, and was used as a secular ornament, symbolical of their sovereignty over the Roman States. The circumstance of the tiara being blessed and placed on the Pope in the balcony of the church, and the fact of its never being worn at Mass, favor this view. Innocent III. speaks of it as the symbol of temporal power: but his words seem to regard the power which, as Vicar of Christ, he claimed over sovereigns, ratione peccati, as far as the morality of their actions was concerned. "The Church," he says, "has given me a crown as a symbol of temporalities: she has conferred on me a mitre in token of spiritual power: a mitre for the priesthood—a crown for the kingdom: making me the vicar of Him who bears written on His garment and thigh: The King of kings, and Lord of lords.'"§ Some think that Boniface VIII., who began his reign in 1294, added a second circle, or crown, to the cap, to express more forcibly this same power over sovereigns but if the testimony of Benzo can be relied on, the two circles were on the cap worn by Nicholas II., who was chosen Pope in 1053.|| Innocent III., however, makes no allusion to the second circle. The third circle was added, as many think, by Benedict XII., in 1334, but more probably by Urban VI., chosen in 1362. The ancient images of the Popes preserved at Rome favor this latter opinion. I know of no document which determines the meaning of the three circles. They

In conatu ad S. Silvest., n. 5.

Diss. v., Della solenne Coron. del Ponf., p. 87.
De Rebus Henrici III., 1. vii. c. 2.

¶ "Qual che siane il significato simbolico." Lunadoro.

† Acta SS. Maji, 1. iv. die 19.

2 Serm. in festo S. Silvest.

may have been added for mere ornament, without any special signification.

The tiara was generally worn only in the solemn ceremony of the coronation, until the time of Paul II., chosen Pope in 1464, who used it on many occasions. Some Popes wore it on the chief festivals.

The address made to the Pope when the tiara is placed on his head, which mentions the three crowns, must have been composed or amended since they were adopted. The cardinal deacon says to him: "Receive the tiara adorned with three crowns, and know that thou art the father of princes and kings, the ruler of the world on earth,* the Vicar of our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom is honor and glory throughout all ages." This language might be considered as implying all that was claimed by Gregory, Innocent, or Boniface; but it is also capable of an interpretation consistent with the more moderate pretensions of the Popes, who, since the days of Sixtus V. or Gregory XIV., during two centuries and a half, have filled the chair of the fisherman. The Pontiff is truly "the father of princes and kings," venerated as such by all the children of the Church, who, in their highest elevation, recognise him as the general head of the whole Christian family. He may be styled "ruler on earth of the world," because the Church, in which he holds the primacy, is spread throughout the world, and he is charged to promulgate to every creature the law of God, to which every soul must be subject. He holds the place of Christ, being entrusted by Him with the care of His sheepfold.

"Rectorem orbis in terra." Some put a comma after orbis, and refer "in terra” to vicarium: but the other punctuation seems correct. "Orbis in urbe" is found in Ovid, and signifies a multitude in a city.

The Primacy.

PART II.

SECULAR RELATIONS.

CHAPTER I.

Patrimony of St. Peter.

THE primacy is essentially a spiritual office, which has not, of divine right, any temporal appendage: yet the Pope is actually sovereign of a small principality in Italy, designated the patrimony of St. Peter, or the States of the Church. It has been so styled because it has been attached to the pontifical office, through reverence for the prince of the apostles. As it has no necessary connection with the primacy, and as Catholics, not living within the Roman States, are not subject to the civil authority of the Pope, it is not necessary to treat of it: yet it is a matter of no small interest to trace its history, and observe by what a combination of events Providence has annexed it to the Holy See, and most wonderfully maintained it, amid the revolutions of empires and kingdoms.

Christ sent forth His disciples without scrip or staff, giving them no dominion over the least spot of earth. In making Peter the ruler of His kingdom, He did not give him dominion, or wealth, or any of the appendages of royalty. The Master had not whereon to lay His head; and the chief disciple was unprovided with any earthly possession. Gold and silver he had not, but he had powers of a supernatural order, for the government of men in order to salvation.

The generous zeal with which the first disciples devoted themselves to the service of God, led many of them to sell their property, and lay the purchase-money at the feet of St. Peter, to form thence a common fund for the general necessities: yet we have no reason to suppose that it rose to any great amount, since the constantly-flowing streams of beneficence left but little in the common reservoir. When the apostle closed his career, he bequeathed to his successors no inheritance but the labors and dangers of his office. For three centuries they continued exposed to the fury of persecution. Nevertheless, the generosity of the faithful consecrated to the service of religion, under their direction, a considerable portion of their worldly riches; so that a public treasure was formed, by means of which the clergy and a large number of indigent persons were supported. In the middle of the third century, Pope Cornelius, in a letter to Fabius, Bishop of Antioch, stated that there were then at Rome forty-six priests, seven deacons, seven sub-deacons, forty-two acolytes,