than in the age of Raffaelle as well as Ariosto. If the successors of Leo X. did not attain so splendid a name, they were, perhaps, after the short reign of Adrian VI.-which, if we may believe the Italian writers, seemed to threaten an absolute return of barbarism-not less munificent or sedulous in encouraging polite and useful letters."* Throughout the sixteenth century, Oriental scholars of considerable reputation were found among the Italian clergy. Even high dignitaries assiduously applied to the study of Hebrew, Arabic, and Chaldaic, among whom I may mention Frederick Borromeo, who was raised to the dignity of cardinal by Sixtus V. Gavanti, the famous rubricist, was familiar with Hebrew, in which language he addressed this cardinal, on occasion of his taking possession of his diocese. Paul V., in 1610, issued a decree requiring the religious orders to have a professor of Greek and Hebrew in all their institutions, and a professor of Arabic in the chief schools. Urban VIII., who himself was familiar with Greek and Hebrew, invited several learned Oriental scholars, among whom was Abraham Ecchellensis, to settle at Rome. History continued to receive liberal encouragement from the Popes. Charles Sigonio, the great historian of the Western empire, was highly honored by Pius V. Onuphrius Panvinio, an Augustinian friar, published at Rome valuable works, in which he re-examined the consulares fasti, already arranged by Sigonio, and otherwise illustrated chronology, as connected with history. Possevino, a Jesuit, who added much to the stores of historic knowledge, was made Papal nuncio, by Gregory XIII., to the court of Sweden, and afterward to Russia. Cardinal Bentivoglio, the historian of the civil wars of Flanders, in the judgment of Hallam, ranks as a writer among the very first of his age. Antiquaries received like patronage. Angeloni, who collected and illustrated ancient medals with great industry, was declared Antiquary of Rome by Clement X. Falconieri, who wrote on the antiquities of Anzio, was raised to the episcopacy by Clement XI. Fabretti, the most celebrated of this honorable class, whose constant researches among caverns and ancient monuments are said to have made his horse instinctively stop at the approach to some ruin or cave, was raised to office by Alexander VIII. and Innocent XII. This province, according to the remark of Hallam, is justly claimed by Italy as her own.† Genius instinctively sought Rome, which inspired the poet with his loftiest strains, and was to him a haven, in which he might rest securely from the storms of life. To it Torquatus Tasso, whose muse rivals that of Homer, twice repaired, and there closed his career, leaving the world. astounded at the sublimity of his flights, and the illusions of his disordered imagination. Urban VIII. and Alexander VII. were themselves votaries of the muses. * Literature of Europe, vol. i. ch. v. i. † Literature of Europe, vol. iv., from 1650 to 1670, ch. i. n. 21. We need not furnish more recent instances of the claims of the Popes to the gratitude of the learned world for their effectual patronage of belles lettres, and of all those studies which contribute to refinement and intellectual enjoyment. It is a mistake to suppose that Italy is not still the land of genius and of learning. Whatever she possesses, she owes to the benign influence of the Pontiffs. Their smiles have cheered the adventurous youth in his struggle to mount the rugged hill of science, their purse has supplied his wants, and they have been ever ready to bestow the most distinguished honors on the successful aspirant. Hallam truly observes, that genius and erudition have always been honored in Italy; and pays a tribute of praise to the spirit breathed in the works of Italians during the last fifty years, which shows that they are not unworthy of their sires. Byron, in many places, has rendered homage to the ancient glory of Rome, and sometimes avowed her actual literary pre-eminence, notwithstanding the decay of her earthly splendor. "Italia! too, Italia! looking on thee, Full flashes on the soul the light of ages; still The fount at which the panting mind assuages Her thirst of knowledge, quaffing there her fill, Flows from the eternal source of Rome's imperial hill."* Childe Harold canto iii. cx. CHAPTER V. Science. 21.-MEDICINE. THE patronage of the Popes was not confined to the study of languages or of antiquity; it embraced the useful sciences. Even in the Middle Ages these were not wholly neglected in the universities, which must necessarily share with their patrons the praise of whatever was taught within their walls. Medicine, long before it received the necessary attention in most countries, was a favorite study at Salerno, and was subsequently cultivated in the universities generally, among which Montpelier acquired high celebrity. The clergy and monks were among its most diligent students, until it became necessary to confine them to the duties more strictly belonging to their state of life. Hallam bears honorable testimony to the successful cultivation of medical science in the Italian universities. "Nicholas Leonicenus, who became professor at Ferrara, before 1470, was the first restorer of the Hippocratic method of practice. He lived to a very advanced age, and was the first translator of Galen from the Greek."* "In the science of anatomy, an epoch was made by the treatise of Mundinus, a professor of Bologna, who died in 1326. It is entitled, 'Anatome Omnium Corporis Interiorum Membrorum.' This book had one great advantage over those of Galen, that it was founded on the actual anatomy of the human body."—"His treatise was long the text-book of the Italian universities." "The first book upon anatomy, since that of Mundinus, was by Zerbi of Verona, who taught in the University of Padua in 1495. The germ of discoveries that have crowned later anatomists with glory, is sometimes perceptible in Zerbi; among others, that of the Fallopian tubes." In the sixteenth century, medical science received still higher encouragement. Leo X. rewarded with his usual munificence the translation of the medical works of Hippocrates, by Mark Fabius Calvi, of Ravenna; and in noticing the embassy sent to him by the citizens of Padua, he designated with special honor Jerom Accorambuoni, as "an excellent physician." The honor of Roman citizenship was bestowed, in 1563, on Mercuriale, a native of Padua, to reward his eminence in the medical science. Beren Hallam, Literature of Europe, ch. ix. n. 9. † Ibidem, ch. ii. n. 37. gario de Carpi, the great anatomist, was urged by Clement VII. to fix his residence at Rome. Eustachius was professor in the Sapienza, which Alexander VII. furnished with an anatomical theatre. Many most distinguished physicians and anatomists filled the chair of that university, while others were employed in the immediate service of the Popes. Vesalius, a Belgian, who was professor at Padua, bore away the palm in anatomical science, in the sixteenth century; but Italy, which was the chief theatre of his scientific displays, came well nigh conferring it on her own sons. "Few sciences," says Hallam "were so successfully pursued in this period as that of anatomy. If it was impossible to snatch from Vesalius the pre-eminent glory that belongs to him as almost its creator, it might still be said, that two men now appeared who, had they lived earlier, would probably have gone as far, and who, by coming later, were enabled to go beyond him. These were Fallopius and Eustachius."*"The best physicians of the century were either Italian or French."+ The seventeenth century presents many instances of the encouragement given by the Popes to these studies. Malpighi was invited to Rome by Innocent XII. to be Papal physician. The services rendered by him to science may best be told in the words of Hallam: "Malpighi was the first who employed good microscopes in anatomy, and thus revealed the secrets, we may say, of an invisible world, which Leuwenhoek afterward, probably using still better instruments, explored with surprising success. To Malpighi anatomists owe their knowledge of the structure of the lungs." The Medical legal questions, published by Paul Zacchia, physician of Innocent X., is still highly esteemed for the exact specifications in anatomy which it contains. Many other medical works were published under the special patronage of the Popes. Lancisi, a Roman physician, gave his splendid medical library to the hospital of Santo Spirito, on condition that it should be for the general use of the profession. Italy retained her pre-eminence. "The Italians," says Hallam, "were still renowned in medicine."§ In connection with this science, we may be allowed to mention the encouragement given to natural history and botany. The former was cultivated, under Leo X. and Adrian VI., by Mattioli, who published a work of great celebrity on herbs, plants, flowers, and animals. Aldovrandi, professor at Bologna, in a work published in 1574, which has received praise, although qualified, from Buffon, an excellent judge, treated at large of birds, insects, fishes, quadrupeds, and all kinds of animals, as also of metals and of trees. The Vatican Museum, in the time of St. Pius V., contained a vast collection of minerals, and of natural curiosities, which were described by Mercati, the guardian of it, in a work styled "Metallotheca," *Literature of Europe, vol. ii. ch. viii. n. 39. Ibidem, n. 42. 2 Ibidem, n. 22. which was published long afterward, with splendid engravings, at the expense of Clement XI. Botany, especially in its connection with medicine, was a favorite study in Italy. Medical botany was taught in the Roman University under Pius V., and the Sapienza was furnished with a botanic garden by Alexander VII. 1 82.-ASTRONOMY. It is important that the reader should be made sensible how much the science of astronomy owes to the fostering patronage of the Pontiffs, especially as in some instances they may, at first sight, appear to have opposed its progress. I shall at once offer an explanation of the first fact that gives a coloring to this charge. It occurred before the middle of the eighth century. St. Gregory II., on being informed that the priest Virgil, an Irishman, taught the existence of another world, and other men under the earth, another sun, and moon, directed Boniface to ascertain the fact, and, if true, to depose him from the priesthood. It is not clear that the opinion of Virgil was the same as that which has since been found to be correct, namely, that antipodes exist. The Pope seems to have understood him as asserting the existence of a race of men in another world, altogether distinct from this, not derived from Adam, of whom God made all mankind, and not redeemed by Christ, who is the Saviour of all men. Of the measures actually adopted by Boniface we are not informed, but it is plain that no doctrinal decree was issued on the occasion. If Virgil be the same individual who was afterward created Bishop of Saltzburg, as is more generally believed, he must have satisfied the archbishop and the Pontiff that his sentiment was innoxious. Granting, what is by no means proved, that Gregory wished deposition to take place for the holding of the opinion concerning the existence of antipodes, it does not show any hostility to science, but a jealous care, lest scientific speculations, not yet confirmed by satisfactory proofs, should weaken the belief in the revealed doctrines. This solicitude may, in some instances, be excessive, without implying any disposition to oppose the progress of science, within its legitimate sphere. The Church is not authorized to pronounce on subjects of this nature, unless as far as they manifestly clash with revelation; but she may adopt precautions, lest natural science be abused to cast discredit on revealed truth. Nicholas V., in 1448, in raising to the dignity of cardinal Nicholas Cusanus, a German, author of a work on statics and a defender of the earth's motion around the sun, gave an unequivocal mark of his regard for science. In Bologna, where astronomy was cultivated with success, this system was probably maintained by Dominic Maria Novara, under whom Copernicus, a native of Thorn on the Vistula, studied at the close |