less, about forty typographical errors were soon discovered, which determined him to issue a corrected edition. His death having prevented the execution of his design, it was delayed until the pontificate of Clement VIII., who allowed the revisors of it to modify and correct many other readings, by reference to the original texts. The discrepancies thus arising between the two editions being very numerous, although for the most part of little moment, the adversaries of the Holy See have taken thence occasion to ring the changes on Papal infallibility, as if this regarded the greater or less accuracy of an edition of the Scriptures. The sanction given by Sixtus was directed to assure the faithful that the edition was substantially correct, and to prevent any changes being made in the readings by private authority. Clement, in publishing the corrected edition, renewed the same sanction with the same views, and gave it as the Sixtine edition revised. This explanation seemed called for by the occasion presented to me of mentioning these editions of the Vulgate, both of which attest the zeal of the Popes for the integrity of the Scriptures. The munificence of the Popes was employed in encouraging the printing of books to be circulated in the Eastern nations. The first printing office in Europe for the Arabic tongue was established at Fano, by Gregory Giorgio of Venice, at the expense of Julius II., in which language a book issued from it in 1514. Gregory XIII. declared Cardinal Ferdinand de' Medici protector of Ethiopia, and of the patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch, in order to stimulate his zeal for the conversion of the inhabitants of those countries: in consequence of which the Cardinal gathered manuscripts from all parts; and at an immense expense, cast Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Armenian types, and employed learned men, especially John Baptist Raimondi, to superintend the press. An Arabic and a Chaldaic grammar issued from it: some works of Avicenna and Euclid were published in Arabic, with three thousand copies of the four Gospels in the same language, for distribution in the East. Raimondi also undertook to publish the whole Bible in ten different tongues. Thus, in the sixteenth century, both before and after the socalled Reformation, the Popes and the cardinals were active patrons of the press, and Bible-distributors! "The Persic grammar was given at Rome by Raimondi in 1614." "We find Ferrari, author of a Syriac lexicon, published at Rome in 1622." In 1627 there were types of fifteen different languages, and, at a later period, of twenty-three, in the printing establishment of Propaganda. There issued from it, in the decline of that age, a work styled "Bibliotheca magna Rabbinica," composed by Father Bartolocci, a Cistercian monk, who for thirty-six years had been professor of Hebrew. An Arabic grammar, a Syro-Arabic Latin thesaurus, a Syriac dictionary, a Hebrew dictionary, and other works of a like character, were published there at various times. Three Maronites, namely, Victor Seialac, Abraham Ecchellensis, and Faustus Nairo, were maintained at the expense of the Pope, for the purpose of publishing works in Arabic. In 1621, a great work called "Hebrew Concordances," came from that press, and was so highly esteemed as to be reprinted in London. An Arabic Bible, which was in preparation during forty-six years, was published at Rome in 1671, in three folio volumes. A printing office, furnished with Oriental types, was established in Milan by Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, from which an Arabic dictionary in four volumes issued in 1632. Cardinal Barbarigo established an Oriental printing office at Padua. "A fine edition of the Koran, and still esteemed the best," as Hallam observes, "was due to Marracci, professor of Arabic in the Sapienza, or University of Rome, and published at the expense of Cardinal Barbarigo in 1698."* The munificence of Clement XI., enabled Joseph Simon Assemani, a Maronite of Syria, to publish at Rome, in 1719, his learned work on the Vatican manuscripts in the Oriental languages. The publication of the works of St. Ephrem was also begun by him, and continued by his nephew Stephen Evodius. The Acts of the martyrs of the East and of the West were published in Chaldaic, and translated by the latter; and several other works, composed by others of that family, came from the same press. It is not easy to enumerate all that Rome has done, and is still engaged in doing, to promote Oriental literature. "Who," cries Ranke, "does not know what the Propaganda has done for philological learning?"† 22. RESTRICTIONS ON THE PRESS. The services of the Popes to letters are forgotten, whilst the restrictions 'imposed by them on the press are made a matter of reproach. Berthold, Archbishop of Mentz, who esteemed so highly the art of printing, deemed it proper to guard against its abuse, by requiring the examination of books by clergymen appointed for the purpose, previous to their publication. Alexander VI. published a similar decree with special reference to Germany, and Leo X. renewed and confirmed it as a general law. Yet as bad books were multiplied, Paul IV., in 1539, published a list of prohibited books. A committee of divines was appointed by the Council of Trent to form a list of bad or dangerous books; who, having failed to complete the task assigned them before the close of the Council, were allowed to continue their labors, and ordered to submit them to the Pope for approval. The list is daily increasing of books, the reading or retention of which is prohibited under ecclesiastical censures and although this discipline is overruled by contrary usage in most countries, it serves to give coloring to the charge, that the Popes are hostile to the liberty of the press. In justice to them I must observe, that their sole object has been to re * Literature of Europe, vol. iv. ch. viii. n. 41. strain the press within the limits of the divine law, and that the licentiousness which sends forth impious and corrupt books, to poison the minds of youth, is that which our late venerable Pontiff visited with unmitigated censure. Liberty of the press, considered as a civil right, does not suppose freedom from moral restraint, or impunity from civil penalties for its abuse. Its chief value, in a civil point of view, is to give free expression to public sentiment in regard to the management of public affairs by rulers, and other officers, and thus to prevent oppression, or procure its remedy, by exposing it to general censure. The exercise of such liberty, for the true interests of the country, is nowise opposed to the spirit or discipline of the Church. It is well known that the Popes have permitted the publication at Rome of works on civil polity, which, on account of their liberal and popular principles, were proscribed in several European States ;* and that, at all times, they have shown themselves disposed to favor the oppressed, rather than stifle their complaints. Incendiary and seditious works could not, of course, be sanctioned by the rulers of the Church, who are bound to sustain established order, and promote peace; but these are not included in the true notion of liberty of the press; since in France, where this is a constitutional right, they are liable to seizure when discovered; and in this country they expose the authors and publishers to the severity of the law. In all that regards science, literature, and the arts, the utmost freedom of the press may be enjoyed, with no limit but the caution of not advancing on holy ground. The golden age of Spanish literature was precisely that in which the laws of the Index, the tribunal which forms the list of prohibited books, were strictly enforced. How can it be pretended that science is impeded in her legitimate progress, because she is warned not to displace the landmarks of religion? A vast space lies open to research and improvements, without encroaching on the realms of faith. If Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding, and Milton's Paradise Lost, are found on the list of prohibited books, it is because the philosopher artfully undermined the doctrine of the spiritual nature of the soul, and the poet exhibited Christ according to the fancy of the Arians and made of Lucifer a hero. Lest an incautious reader, misled by a great name, should imbibe fatal error, the books were proscribed; but even in countries where the discipline prevails, leave to read them is easily obtained. The Popes have at all times respected the meditations of true philosophy, and honored the inspirations of the Muses, always saving the truth of what God has revealed. Freedom of the press, as a civil right, in this country, extends to the The work of Spedalieri, entitled, "I diritti dell' uomo," in which the right of a nation to depose a despot, is supported by the authority of St. Thomas of Aquin, in his letter to the Bishop of Rome, was published at Rome in 1791, dedicated to Cardinal Ruffo, Apostolic Treasurer. Pius VI. who encouraged its publication, rewarded the author by appointing him one of the Canons of the Basilic of St. Peter. publication of works on doctrinal subjects, without regard to the faith of the Church so that all the doctrines which we hold to be divine, may be assailed without incurring any civil penalty, which, however, may be inflicted, even here, on an open blasphemer of Christ. To the full enjoyment of this civil right by our fellow-citizens, we make no objection whatever. The Constitutions of the various States, and the principles of the country and age, give it, leaving to each one the responsibility of its enjoyment. For ourselves, believing firmly that God has made a revelation, of which the Church is the guardian, we cannot conscientiously approve of any thing written or spoken in opposition to her teaching. The decrees of the Pope proscribing certain books as containing false doctrines, are for us the warnings of a father against what might pervert the understanding, and corrupt the hearts of his children. Independently of them, we are naturally bound to shun whatever is dangerous to our faith and morals. The youth who, uninstructed in the great evidences of revelation, familiarizes himself with Paine's Age of Reason, exposes himself to the manifest danger of infidelity. The female who, with morbid curiosity, peruses an obscene tale, is liable to lose that purity of heart which is her greatest treasure. In proportion to our information and moral habits, the dangers may be diminished; but it is beyond a doubt, that to the reading of bad books may be traced the infidelity and corruption of innumerable individuals. The restrictions which the Popes imposed would be unjust, if arbitrary; and unreasonable, if those for whom they were intended did not already recognise their pastoral authority: but this being recognised, nothing is more reasonable and just than to turn away the sheep from noxious pastures, by proscribing whatever is contrary to sound doctrine. At all events, the precedent of the proscription of bad books was given by the Apostles, when the vast collection of works of magic belonging to converts from that superstition, were consigned to the flames.* Will the readers of Scripture charge the Apostles with hostility to knowledge? The moral restraints resulting from our discipline serve to avert many of the evils with which the licentiousness of the press deluges the world. The pangs of the broken heart when its shame has been revealed-the desolation of families, whose sorrows have rung on the public ear-the torture of highminded patriots, writhing under the calumnies of reckless rivals-the fury of a populace maddened to arson and bloodshed by incendiary publications, and the struggles and convulsions of parties, which almost threaten the dissolution of society, are no imaginary evils. Voltaire did not hesitate to declare that the press had become one of the scourges of society.† Even here, abolition publications are regarded with horror, as tending to encourage sedition and endangering the lives of the citizens. Acts xix. 19. + "La presse, il le faut avouer, est devenue un des fléaux de la société, et un brigandage intolérable." Voltaire, fragment d'une lettre á un Académicien de Berlin, t. v. 1 CHAPTER VIII. Moral Influence. 21. CIVILIZATION. WHAT we have elsewhere said of the authority exercised over princes for the correction of their morals, must give a high idea of the general influence which the Popes had on morality and order. When the people saw their leaders stricken with the rod of ecclesiastical authority, they were made deeply sensible of the turpitude of crime, which could not escape censure even in the great and powerful. The struggle of the Pontiffs with the fierce passions of the feudal nobility, is graphically described by a writer in the British Critic, who thus represents the position of the Church in the Middle Ages: "Just as she had subdued the intelligence and refinement of the old Roman Empire, it was swept away, and she was left alone with its wild destroyers. Her commission was changed: she had now to tame and rule the barbarians. But upon them the voice which had rebuked the heretic, fell powerless. While they pressed into her fold, they overwhelmed all her efforts to reclaim them, and filled her, from east to west, with violence and stunning disorder. When, therefore, she again roused herself to confront the world, her position and difficulties were shifted. Her enemy was no longer heresy, but vice-wickedness which wrought with a high hand, foul and rampant, like that of Sodom, or the men before the flood. It was not the faith, but the first principles of duty-justice, mercy, and truth, which were directly endangered by the unbridled ambition and licentiousness of the feudal aristocracy, who were then masters of Europe. With this fierce nobility, she had to fight the battle of the poor and weak-to settle the question whether the Christian religion and the offices of the Church were to be any thing more than names, and honors, and endowments, trappings of chivalry and gentle blood; whether there were yet strength left upon earth to maintain and avenge the laws of God, whoever might break them. She had to stand between the oppressor and his prey-to compel respect for what is pure and sacred from the lawless and powerful."* It is impossible not to admire the unflinching resolution with which the Pontiffs contended for moral principle against these potentates. The disorders of those ages British Critic, vol. 33, p. 7. |