ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS. 869. Probably the proper answer to this question would involve a grave discussion, and would most likely eventually require us to go back to the question "What is philosophy ?" Mill may be said to be at the head of the sensational school of philosophy, as a pyschological science; although perhaps the headship of the modern school might be disputed by Alexander Bain or Herbert Spencer. Hamilton, on the other hand, might be regarded as the chief of the idealistic school of philosophy as a logical science; although perhaps the headship of this school might now be challenged by Canon Mansel or Dr. Stirling. S. N. 870. The names of Hutcheson, Burke, Berkeley, King, Butler, Webbe, &c., might suggest an affirmative to this answer, but we had a definite reply to a somewhat similar query from the pen of S. N. but a short time ago. (See reply 830, vol. xxx., p. 393.) R. M. A. 871. I forward this mite of information on this topic : :-"As the operation of thrashing by means of oxen was going on, the peasant relieved his labours and cheered on the animals with a species of song, the hieroglyphical record of which was discovered by Champollion in 1828. It has been thus translated:Tread ye out for yourselves, Tread ye out for yourselves, Oh, oxen! Tread ye out for yourselves, The grain. tana," p. 163. READER. 872. An imitative style is almost always a mediocre one. I think the greater part of good advisers now a-days recommend observant reading of many styles, in preference to pointing out models. This, I have no doubt, is the best plan. Study the chief writers of the class on the subject on which you desire to com. pose; notice the mode in which each produces his effects; and then set your own thoughts to express themselves as fully and fairly as they may, and unborrowed yet sug gested beauties will accrue to the writing thus accomplished, which will not only repay but justify the efforts made. I would recommend Walter Sherrington to read a splendid paper in Lord Lytton's Caxtoniana, entitled "Style and Diction," of which I here only quote the closing sentences,-"The useful passes away with each generation into new uses. The beautiful remains a fixed unalterable standard of value, by which the useful itself is compelled to calculate the worth of its daily labour." H. B. 873. W. L. Bowles stirred the early aspirations of Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Southey. Of his sonnets H. Hallam says, 66 The sonnets of Bowles may be reckoned among the firstfruits of a new era in poetry. They came in an age when a commonplace facility in writing, on the one hand, and an almost nonsensical affectation in a new school on the other, had lowered the standard so much that critical judges spoke of English poetry as of something nearly extinct, and disdained to read what they were sure to disapprove." H. B. 874. It would be exceedingly diffi. cult to give a categorical answer to the question put by Walter Sherrington. Mill's "Logic" is not properly a text-book, neither are Hamilton's "Lectures." Archbishop Thom. son's "Laws of Thought" was composed as a text-book, and is perhaps, in its own sphere of Aristotelic and Kantian syllogistic, moderately com bined with Hamiltonianism, a very fair specimen of a collegiate treatise. Whately's "Logic," though sedulously elaborated for scholastic purposes, and much used for that purpose, is defective in breadth and adaptation to modern purposes. Kidd's "Theory of Reasoning" is little more than Whately pamphletized. De Morgan's "Formal Logic is too discursive and discussional for a text-book, and his "Syllabus " is too meagre. Spalding's "Logic," though used by its author's students, is too recondite and abstruse to be well adapted for class teaching. Morell's "Handbook" is very slight, and not so clearly arranged and exemplified as a school logic ought to be. Boole's "Laws of Thought" is a formidable treatise, advancing new opinions of great value, but not suited for class study or easy of comprehension, even to diligence in private. Devey's Logic is a collection of essays rather than a text-book. Emmons is limited in its aim and scope, and gives the logic of Mill greater prominence than that of Aristotle. Shedden's seems to be a very excellent outline treatise for scholastic purposes. Mansel's logical tracts and treatises are cumbrously annotated and indefinite. Leechman's logic is a sort of hybrid of Reid's (very unsatisfactory) "Aristotelic" and Whately's logic, though it consists rather of a copious digest of the lectures of Dr. Robert Buchanan, formerly Professor of Logic in the University of Glasgow. Fowler's logic has not succeeded in fusing Hamiltonianism and Aristotelianism, and hence makes the one seem to increase the difficulty of the other, and in the inductive part is perhaps too submissive to Mill and too little inclined to give the opinions of Whewell a place in the philosophy of science. Bayne's "New Analytic" is only a partial explanation of Hamilton. Samuel Bailey's "Theory is diffusely stated and scarcely tenable. Cairn's is rather a collection of notes than a text-book. Gilbert's "Logic for the Million " is a compilation, but wants purpose. Neil's "Art of Reasoning" is not a text-book for class teaching but for individual study, and was intended to be so explanatory as to enable an intelligent reader to dispense with a tutor. Any one of these works, however, if carefully studied, would impart useful ideas to any student, and if several were diligently collated they would be found mutual aids to a knowledge of the science of thinking. I do not think it can be very necessary to verify this hastily written reply, given at the conductors' request, by the appending of the signature. S. N. 884. Gilbert West was born in 1715. His father, Richard West, was the editor of Pindar. Gilbert was educated at Etou and Oxford. His uncle, Lord Cobham, procured him an ensigncy, as he had become sceptical in opinions, and so unfit for the Church. He was private secretary to Lord Townsend and clerk to the Privy Council, and Treasurer to Chelsea Hospital. He lived at Wickham, and devoted his leisure to thought and intellectual intercourse. Lords Chatham and Lyttleton visited him, and the latter gained from him the impulse which led to his writing the "Dissertation of St. Paul." In 1747 West issued his "Observations on the Resurrection of Jesus Christ," and Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.D. In 1749 he issued his translation of Pindar, and subsequently a few English poems. He died in 1756, a few days after the death of his son. B. D. Literary Notes. PROF. ALEX. BAIN, of Aberdeen, has in the Press "Logic, deductive and inductive," which will include all the recent extensions of the syllogism, and will besides furnish a logical view of the sciences somewhat after the Comtean plan. Rev. D. J. Reichel, of Cuddesdon College, has nearly ready an English translation of Dr. E. Zeller's "Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics," a work which commends itself not only to scholars but divines. H. W. Wilkins has translated into English the speeches contained in the history by Thucydides. This will advantage both scholars and historians. Comte de Montalembert, author of "A Free Church in a Free State," "The Political Future of England," "The Monks of the West," &c., died 13th March, aged 60. Prof. A. C. Fraser is nearing the completion of a great work, the 4th vol. of his edition of the works of Bishop Berkeley, for the Clarendon Press, Oxford, is in the press; he is to spend the summer in the preparation of a biography of the philosophical prelate. Besides the editor's prefaces and notes, and his account of Berkeley's life and philosophy, it contains much hitherto unpublished matter from the Bishop's MSS., which have been supplied by Archdeacon Rose. The work will be illustrated with an engraving of a fine portrait got from America. The Athenæum very mistakenly avers that the Bishop has hitherto been appreciated in Germany and neglected in England. Professor Ueberweg, of Königsberg, has lately published a German translation of Bishop Berkeley, which, however, is more a class-book than a philosophical edition. Dr. Karl Mayer, a Suabian poet, died at Tubingen, aged 84, 25 Feb. The annual prize offered by the Lord Rector of the University of St. Andrew's for the best essay on a subject proposed by himself has been awarded by J. A. Froude, Rector, to Mr. W. W. Tulloch, son of John Tulloch, D.D., Principal of St. Mary's College, for an historical essay on the subject of the "Gowrie Conspiracy." The subject proposed by the Lord Rector for the ensuing year is "The influence of France on Scotland." Mr. William Brough, journalist, essayist, and dramatist, died March 12th, at the age of 44, after a lingering illness of some months. Rev. Alex. Williamson, agent in Northern China for the National Bible Society of Scotland, has in the press two vols. of Travels, Discoveries, &c. during the course of eleven journeys in that region. Dr. W. Cox Bennett, author of "Queen Eleanor's Vengeance," has many letters of Miss Mitford's, which it is proposed should be issued as a small volume, supplementary to her life and letters. A translation of Catullus in the metre of the original is to be given to us by Prof. Robinson Ellis, of University College, London. Kepler's complete works are to be published in Paris. Casuistry is likely soon to get an addition to its literature in Keble's "Letters on Cases of Conscience." William White's "Life of Swedenborg " has been issued in a second edition in one volume revised. Mr. Goldwin Smith is engaged in writing a popular history of England for American readers. Great expectations are entertained of a new volume of poems by Mr. Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Mr. Swinburne is also at work upon a volume of political and other poems. Modern Metaphysicians. ARNOLD RUGE-THE PHILOSOPHY OF HUMANISM. BY JAMES HUTCHISON STIRLING, LL.D., Author of The Secret of Hegel," "The Philosophy of Perception," &c. ARNOLD RUGE has sent us the fourth volume of his late work, Aus Früherer Zeit," the subject of which is "Philosophy and its Emancipation." Both the man and the work are of such mark, that it concerns the interests of our readers to know something of them. There is an island in the Baltic named Rügen, the largest of all the German islets there. Probably originally part of the continent, it is now separated from it by a narrow strait only some mile broad. The sea has so eaten into it, that it may be almost said to be made up of peninsulas. Naturally, its scenery is of a very romantic character; varied as it is by rock and water, barren sands or peatmosses, and the most fertile corn-fields. It belongs now to Prussia, and is a favourite summer resort of its afflicted bureaucrats in search of health. Tradition also lends a charm to it; for it was here, according to Tacitus, that the goddess Hertha was worshipped. Bergen is, so to speak, the capital, with some 3,000 inhabitants. These, as those of the island generally, are remarkable for industry; they are sailors, fishermen, tillers of the soil, breeders of cattle, makers of cloth, distillers, &c. A notable peculiarity of the island is the number of noble families it possesses: it is, as it were, sown with the castles-or, shall we say, simply the houses-of nobles. In this island, and in this Bergen, it was-and the fact, taken in connection with the career, is very remarkable-that, in the year 1802, Arnold Ruge was born. He studied philology and philo sophy at the University of Jena, where the influences of the teaching of Schelling, Fichte, and Hegel; of Krause, Oken, and Paulus were felt; and where many of the most distinguished of the professors in Germany had acquired academical training and honours. It was the head-quarters of what has been called the New German Party, which was opposed to absolute government. The first notable incident in his life was his imprisonment of six years' duration, one at Kopinick and five in Colberg, for his participation in the movement known as that of the Burschenschaft, "Aus Früherer Zeit" (From Earlier Days), von Arnold Ruge. Vierter Band. Berlin: 1867. 1870. Y an association of young, hot-headed, inexperienced students for political purposes, which in some cases degenerated into conspiracy and rebellion. While a prisoner, he devoted his involuntary leisure to a zealous prosecution of the philosophical studies which he had begun at the University; attaching himself in especial to the system then dominant-that, namely, of Hegel. His first literary productions, however, were, as is usual with the young, poetical: a translation of the "Edipus Coloneus" of Sophocles, and a tragedy on the subject of the heroic Schill, a patriot chief of the Tugendbund. On liberation from captivity he qualified himself as a privatim docens at Halle. Here he lectured on Criticism and Philosophy, and not without success; for he had the name of being the first "to introduce the youth of Halle into the depths of the Hegelian system;" still, and though he had published a work of mark on The Esthetics of Plato," 1832, he was unable to make good for himself the fixed position of a professor. His marriage, however, set him above want (though speedily broken up by the death of his wife), and he could feel independent. This feeling of independence could not, in so very ardent a nature, remain simply of a passive character; it became active, and involved him in various unpleasantnesses, especially with the University. In these circumstances he entered eagerly into his friend Echtermeyer's proposition to start he "Halle Year-books," and became their most active contributor. This periodical, at first mainly philosophical, and in this character valuable, became gradually more and more political, and withal more and more extreme. This necessitated in 1841 (they were started in 1838), a retreat from Prussian territory to the refuge of Dresden. Here the extreme" Halle Year-books" became, naturally, only the more extreme "German Year-books ;" and were at length, as naturally, in the year 1843, finally suppressed. Ruge betook himself on this to Paris, but failed in an attempt to continue the propagation of his radicalism in the "German-French Yearbooks." From Paris he passed to Switzerland, from Switzerland back again to Germany, and for some time now (since 1850) he has been settled at Brighton, in England. Ruge evidently is a man of such fierce intellectual keenness, and sees his own in a light so intense, that he has neither patience nor understanding-perhaps hardly credence-for difference, and difference of light, in another. Nothing can surpass the fiery openness of his belief and his unbelief, his love and his hate. The expression of his heterodoxy is no less extreme and honest than that of his radicalism; and from this it is that the usefulness of Ruge has fallen far short of his talents and capabilities. All the talent in the world, and all the earnestness in the world, even united with unfailing wit and irresistible humour, will never reconcile a temperament so hot and self-willed with the due social relations, either public or private. Detested by his enemies, he has proved unbearable to his friends, and seems left alone. His life appears to have been, in search of peace and his sphere, but a series of leaps from discontent to dis |