of human prejudices and the most widely spread of human failings, while in other directions they have to encounter a powerful opposition arising from the selfish motives of those whose personal ends are served by systems which involve a practical denial of the existence of those truths. Yet, for all that, there is no cause to despair. It may be that the old ground will have to be fought over countless times; but there is no reason to doubt that the errors and follies which have held the advantage up till the present time will eventually succumb here, as they have done in At pres other fields of human progress. ent the task of removing them may well be compared to the labors of Sisyphus; still, in the end, the work will undoubtedly be accomplished; for however persistently men may strive to increase their prosperity by fictitious aids, or to escape the consequences of their own shortcomings by the mere enactment of written laws, a relentless fate will drive them back in search of new devices. And thus, on the principle of the survival of the fittest, from the chaos of error the truth will at last emerge triumphant.- Westminster Review. THE ART OF PROLONGING LIFE. BY ROBSON ROOSE, M.D. THE doctrine that a short life is a sign of divine favor has never been accepted by the majority of mankind. Philosophers have vied with each other in depicting the evils and miseries incidental to existence, and the truth of their descriptions has often been sorrowfully admitted, but they have failed to dislodge, or even seriously diminish, that desire for long life which has been deeply implanted within the hearts of men. The question whether life be worth living has been decided by a majority far too great to admit of any doubt upon the subject, and the voices of those who would fain reply in the negative are drowned amid the chorus of assent. Longevity, indeed, has come to be regarded as one of the grand prizes of human existence, and reason has again and again suggested the inquiry whether care or skill can increase the chances of acquiring it, and can make old age, when granted, as comfortable and happy as any other stage of our existence. From very early times the art of prolonging life, and the subject of longevity, have engaged the attention of thinkers and essayists; and some may perhaps contend that these topics, admittedly full of interest, have been thoroughly exhausted. It is true that the art in question has long been recognized and practised, but the science upon which it really depends is of quite modern origin. New facts connected with longevity have, moreover, been collected within the last few years, and some of these I propose to examine, and further to inquire whether they teach us any fresh means whereby life may be maintained and prolonged. He But before entering upon the immediate subject, there are several preliminary questions which demand a brief examination, and the first that suggests itself is, What is the natural duration of human life? This oft-repeated question has received many different answers; and inquiry has been stimulated by scepticism as to their truth. The late Sir George Cornewall Lewis expressed the opinion that one hundred years must be regarded as a limit which very few, if indeed any, human beings succeed in reaching, and he supported this view by several cogent reasons. pointed out that almost all the alleged instances of abnormal longevity occurred among the humbler classes, and that it was difficult, if not impossible, to obtain any exact information as to the date of birth and to identify the individuals with any written statements that might be forthcoming. He laid particular stress upon the fact that similar instances were altogether absent among the higher classes, with regard to whom trustworthy documentary evidence was almost always obtainable. He thought that the higher the rank the more favorable would the conditions be for the attainment of a long life. In this latter supposition, however, Sir George Lewis was probably inistaken the comforts and luxuries appertaining to wealth and high social rank are too often counterbalanced by cares and anxieties, and by Easton says, modes of living inconsistent with the maintenance of health, and therefore with the polongation of life. In the introduction to his work on "Human Longevity," "It is not the rich or great .. that become old, but such as use much exercise, are exposed to the fresh air, and whose food is plain and moderate -as farmers, gardeners, fishermen, laborers, soldiers, and such inen as perhaps never employed their thoughts on the means used to promote longevity." to have estimated the life of man at threescore years and ten-a measure nowadays pretty generally accepted. There is no reason for believing that the extreme limit of human life in the time of the Greeks and Romans differed materially from that which agrees with modern experience. Stories of the attainment of such ages as 120 years and upward may be placed in the same category as the reputed longevity of Henry Jenkins, Thomas Parr, Lady Desmond, and a host of others. The French naturalist, Buffon, believed With regard to later times, such as the that if accidental causes could be excluded, Middle Ages, there are no precise data the normal duration of human life would upon which any statements can be based, be between ninety and one hundred years, but there is every reason to believe that and he suggested that it might be meas- the average duration of life was decidedly ured (in animals as well as in man) by the less than it is at present. The extreme period of growth, to which it stood in a limit, indeed, three or four centuries certain proportion. He imagined that ago, would appear to have been much every animal might live for six or seven lower than it is in the nineteenth century. times as many years as were requisite for At the request of Mr. Thoms, Sir J. the completion of its growth. But this Duffus Hardy investigated the subject of calculation is not in harmony with facts, the longevity of man in the thirteenth, so far, at least, as man is concerned. His fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth cenperiod of growth cannot be estimated at turies, and his researches led him to beless than twenty years; and if we take lieve that persons seldom reached the age the lower of the two multipliers, we get a of 80. He never met with a trustworthy number which, in the light of modern evi- record of a person who exceeded that age. dence, cannot be accepted as attainable. If the period of growth be multiplied by five, the result will in all probability not be far from the truth. If we seek historical evidence, and from it attempt to discover the extreme limit of human life, we are puzzled at the differences in the ages said to have been attained. The longevity of the antediluvian patriarchs when contrasted with our modern experience seems incredible. When we look at an individual, say 90 years of age, taking even the most favorable specimen, a prolongation of life to ten times that number of years would appear too absurd even to dream about. There is certainly no physiological reason why the ages assigned to the patriarchs should not have been attained, and it is useless to discuss the subject, for we know very little of the conditions under which they lived. It is interesting to notice that after the Flood there was a gradual decrease in the duration of life. Abraham is recorded to have died at 175; Joshua, some five hundred years later, waxed old and stricken in age" shortly before his death at 110 years; and his predecessor, Moses, to whom 120 years are assigned, is believed 66 To bring the investigation down to quite recent times, I cannot do better than utilize the researches of Dr. Humphry, Professor of Surgery at Cambridge. In 1886 he obtained particulars relating to fiftytwo individuals then living and said to be 100 years old and upward. The oldest among them claimed to be 108, the next 106, while the average amounted to a little more than 102 years. Many interesting facts connected with the habits and mode of life of these individuals were ob tained by Dr. Humphry, and will be referred to in subsequent paragraphs. A short account of the experience of a few Life Assurance Companies will conclude this part of my subject. Mr. Thoms tells us that down to 1872 the records of the Companies showed that one death among the assured had occurred at 103, one in the 100th, and three in the 99th year. The experience of the National Debt Office, according to the same authority, gave two cases in which the evidence could be regarded as perfect; one of these died in the 102d year, and the other had just completed that number. In the tables published by the Institute of Actuaries, and giving the mortality experi ence down to 1863 of twenty Life Assurance Companies, the highest age at death is recorded as 99, and I am informed by the secretary of the Edinburgh Life Office, that from 1863 onward that age had not been exceeded in his experience. In the valuation schedules, which show the highest ages of existing lives in various offices, the ages range from 92 to 95. It is true that one office which has a large business among the industrial classes reports lives at 103, and in one instance at 107; but it must be remembered that among those classes the ages are not nearly so well authenticated as among those who assure for substantial sums. There is, moreover, another source of error connected with the valuation schedules. When a given life is not considered to be equal to the average a certain number of years is added to the age, and the premium is charged at the age which results from this addition. It follows, therefore, that in some cases the ages given in the schedules are greater by some years than they really are. Taking into consideration the facts thus rapidly passed under review, it must, I think, be admitted that the natural limit of human existence is that assigned to it in the book of Ecclesiasticus, "The number of a man's days at the most are an hundred years" (chap. xviii. 9). In a very small number of cases this limit is exceeded, but only by a very few years. Mr. Thoms's investigations conclusively show that trustworthy evidence of 110 years having been reached is altogether absent. Future generations will be able to verify or reject statements in all alleged cases of longevity. It must be remembered that previous to the year 1836 there was no registration of births, but only of baptisms, and that the registers were kept in the churches, and contained only the names of those therein baptized. Whatever number of years may be taken as representing the natural term of human life, whether threescore-and-ten or a century be regarded as such, we are confronted by the fact that only one-fourth of our population attains the former age, and that only about fifteen in 100,000 become centenarians. It is beyond the scope of this article to discuss the causes of premature mortality, but the conditions favorable to longevity, and the causes to which length of days has been assigned, are closely connected with its subject. A capability of attaining old age is very often handed down from one generation to another, and heredity is probably the most powerful factor in connection with longevity. A necessary condition of reaching advanced age is the possession of sound bodily organs, and such an endowment is eminently capable of transmission. Instances of longevity characterizing several generations are frequently brought to notice. A recent and most interesting example of transmitted longevity is that of the veteran guardian of the public health, Sir Edwin Chadwick, who was entertained at a public dinner a few weeks ago on the occasion of his reaching his 90th year. He informed his entertainers that his father died at the age of 84, his grandfather at 95, and that two more remote ancestors were centenarians. It is difficult to estimate the influence of other contingencies which affect longevity. With regard to sex, Hufeland's opinion was that women were more likely than men to become old, but that instances of extreme longevity were more frequent among men. This opinion is to some extent borne out by Dr. Humphry's statistics of his fifty-two centenarians thirty-six were women. Marriage would appear to be conducive to longevity. A well-known French savant, Dr. Bertillon, states that a bachelor of 25 is not a better life than a married man of 45, and he attributes the difference in favor of married. people to the fact that they take more care of themselves, and lead more regular lives than those who have no such tie. It must, however, be remembered that the mere fact of marrying indicates superior vitality and vigor, and the ranks of the unmarried are largely filled by the physically unfit. In considering occupations as they are likely to affect longevity, those which obviously tend to shorten life need not be considered. With respect to the learned professions, it would appear that among the clergy the average of life is beyond that of any similar class. It is improbable that this average will be maintained for the future; the duties and anxieties imposed upon the clergy of the present generation place them in a very different position from that of their predecessors. Among lawyers there have been several eminent judges who attained a great age, and the rank and file of the profession are also characterized by a decided tendency to longevity. The medical profession supplies but few instances of extreme old age, and the average duration of life among its members is decidedly low, a fact which can be easily accounted for. Broken rest, hard work, anxieties, exposure to weather and to the risks of infection cannot fail to exert an injurious influence upon health. No definite conclusions can be arrived at with regard to the average longevity of literary and scientific men, but it might be supposed that those among them who are not harassed by anxieties and enjoy fair health would probably reach old age. As a general rule, the duration of life is not shortened by literary pursuits. A man may worry himself to death over his books, or, when tired of them, may seek recreation in pursuits destructive to health; but application to literary work tends to produce cheerfulness, and to prolong rather than shorten the life even of an infirm man. In Professor Humphry's "Report on Aged Persons," containing an account of 824 individuals of both sexes, and between the ages of 80 and 100, it is stated that 48 per cent. were poor, 42 per cent. were in comfortable circumstances, and only 10 per cent. were described as being in affluent circumstances. Dr. Humphry points out that these ratios "must not be regarded as representing the relations of poverty and affluence to longevity, because in the first place, the poor at all ages and in all districts bear a large proportion to the affluent; and secondly, the returns are largely made from the lower and middle classes, and in many instances from the inmates of union-workhouses, where a good number of aged people are found." It must also be noticed that the " past life-history" of these individuals showed that the greater proportion (55 per cent.) "had lived in comfortable circumstances,' and that only 35 per cent. had been poor. Merely to enumerate the causes to which longevity has been attributed in attempt ing to account for individual cases would be a task of some magnitude; it will be sufficient to mention a few somewhat probable theories. Moderation in eating and drinking is often declared to be a cause of longevity, and the assertion is fully corrob. orated by Dr. Humphry's inquiries. Of his fifty-two centenarians, twelve were recorded as total abstainers from alcoholic drinks throughout life, or for long periods; twenty had taken very little alcohol; eight were reported as moderate in their use of it; and only three habitually indulged in it. It is quite true that a few persons who must be classified as drunkards live to be very old; but these are exceptions to the general rule, and such cases appear to be more frequent than they really are, because they are often brought to notice by those who find encouragement from such examples. The habit of temperance in food, good powers of digestion, and soundness of sleep are other main characteristics of most of those who attain advanced years, and may be regarded as causes of longevity. Not a few old persons are found on inquiry to take credit to themselves for their own condition, and to attribute it to some remarkable peculiarity in their habits or mode of life. It is said that Lord Mansfield, who reached the age of 89, was wont to inquire into the habits of life of all aged witnesses who appeared before him, and that only in one habit, namely, that of early rising, was there any general concurrence. Health is doubtless often promoted by early rising, but the habit is not necessarily conducive to longevity. It is, as Sir H. Holland points out, more probable that the vigor of the individuals main tains the habit than that the latter alone maintains the vitality. If we pass from probable to improbable causes of longevity we are confronted by many extravagant assumptions. Thus, to take only a few examples, the immoderate use of sugar has been regarded not only as a panacea, but as decidedly conducive to length of days. Dr. Slare, a physician of the last century, has recorded the case of a centenarian who used to mix sugar with all his food, and the doctor himself was so convinced of the "balsamic virtue" of this substance that he adopted the practice, and boasted of his health and strength in his old age. Another member of the same profession used to take daily doses of tannin (the substance employed to harden and preserve leather), under the impression that the tissues of the body would be thereby protected from decay. His life was protracted beyond the ordinary span, but it is questionable whether the tannin acted in the desired direction. Lord Combermere thought that his good health and advanced years were due, in part at least, to the fact that he always wore a tight belt round his waist. His lordship's appetite was doubtless thereby kept within bounds; we are further told that he was very moderate in the use of all fluids as drink. Cleanliness might be supposed to aid in prolonging life, yet a Mrs. Lewson, who died in the early part of this century, aged 106, must have been a singularly dirty person. We are told that instead of washing she smeared her face with lard, and asserted that people who washed always caught cold." This lady, no doubt, was fully persuaded that she had discovered the universal medicine. Many of the alchemists attributed the power of prolonging life to certain preparations of gold, probably under the idea that the permanence of the metal might be imparted to the human system. Descartes is said to have favored such opinions he told Sir Kenelm Digby that although he would not venture to promise immortality, he was certain that his life might be lengthened to the period of that enjoyed by the patriarchs. His plan, however, seems to have been the very ational and simple one of checking all excesses and enjoining punctual and frugal meals. Having thus endeavored to show the extent to which human life may be prolonged, and having examined some of the causes or antecedents of longevity, the last subject for inquiry is the means by which it may be attained. Certain preliminary conditions are obviously requisite; in the first place there must be a sound constitution derived from healthy ancestors, and in the second there must be a freedom from organic disease of important organs. Given an individual who has reached the grand climacteric, or threescore and three, and in whom these two conditions are fulfilled, the means best adapted to maintain and prolong his life constitute the question to be solved. It has been said that "he who would long to be an old man must begin early to be one, " but very few persons designedly take measures in early life in order that they may live longer than their fellows. The whole term of life may be divided into the three main periods of growth and development, of maturity, and of decline. No hard and fast line can be drawn between these two latter phases of existence the one should pass gradually into the other until the entire picture is changed. Diminished conservative power and the consequent triumph of disintegrating forces are the prominent features of the third period, which begins at different times in different individuals, its advent being mainly controlled by the general course of the preceding years. The "turning period," also known as the "climacteric" or 66 middle age, " lies between 45 and 60; the period beyond may be considered as belonging to advanced life or old age. The majority of the changes characteristic of these last stages are easily recognizable. It is hardly necessary to mention the wrinkled skin, the furrowed face, the "crow's feet" beneath the eyes, the stooping gait, and the wasting of the frame. The senses, notably vision and hearing, becomes less acute; the power of digestion is lessened; the force of the heart is diminished; the lungs are less permeable; many of the air-cells lose their elasticity and merge into each other, so that there is less breathing surface as well as less power. Simultaneously with these changes the mind may present signs of enfeeblement; but in many instances its powers long remain in marked contrast with those of the body. One fact connected with advanced life is too often neglected. It should never be forgotten that while the "forces in use" at that period are easily exhausted, the "forces in reserve" are often so slight as to be unable to meet the smallest demand. In youth, the vires in posse are superabundant; in advanced life, they are reduced to a minimum, and in some instances are practically non-existent. The recognition of this difference is an all-important guide in laying down rules for conduct in old age. In order to prolong life and at the same time to enjoy it, occupation of some kind is absolutely necessary; it is a great mistake to suppose that idleness is conducive to longevity. It is at all times better to wear out than to rust out, and the latter process is apt to be speedily accomplished. Every one must have met with individuals who, while fully occupied till sixty or even seventy years of age, remained hale and strong, but aged with marvellous rapidity after relinquishing work, a change in their mental condition becoming especially prominent. There is an obvious lesson to be learned from such instances, but certain |