geous action to win others to God are guarantees for their personal salvation.

After treating the formation of lay apostles, the Holy Father considers certain urgent fields of the lay apostolate, both in the strict and broad sense. He touches on the parish, the communications media, the world of workers, Latin America, the Asian and African Missions. "The catechist," he says, "is perhaps the classic example of the lay apostle, both by the very nature of his profession and because he makes up for the shortage of priests."

Thus, in this address the Holy Father makes his reflexions on the principles, the formation, and the exercise of the lay apostolate. Besides the two addresses to the World Congresses, there are two other texts to be more briefly considered. One is Mystici Corporis.10 Here the Holy Father points out that, while those with Holy Orders are the first and chief members of the Church because through them Christ's apostolate as Teacher, King, Priest endures, nevertheless religious, those in the world wholly consecrated to the works of mercy, fathers and mothers, godparents, members of the laity who collaborate with the hierarchy, all occupy an honorable, if often lowly place, in the Christian Community and can reach the heights of sanctity.11 The other text is the Address to the New Cardinals.12 Here the Holy Father stresses the Church's mission to form the whole man and so to collaborate in building society. In this mission laymen are in the front lines of the life of the Church. Laymen must be always more aware that they not only belong to the Church but that they are the Church, that is, the communion of the faithful on earth under the leadership of the Holy Father and of the bishops in communion with him.13

In the spirit of these words of Pius XII, we will now consider what the lay apostolate is. To do this, we must necessarily consider what the layman is. The layman is a member of the Body of Christ. That is why the layman must be active.

For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body, whether Jews or Gentiles, whether slaves or free; and we were all given to drink of

•AAS, 49 (1957), 937.

10

AAS, 35 (1943), 193.

"AAS, 35 (1943), 200-201.

12

11 AAS, 38 (1946), 141.
"AAS, 38 (1946), 149.

one Spirit. For the body is not one member, but many. If the foot says, "Because I am not a hand, I am not of the body," is it therefore not of the body ?14

No member of the Church should be passive. No member of the Church is unimportant. Each has rather a vital contribution to make to his fellow members, a contribution that is singular because no one else can make it.

The layman is not only a member of the Church, an active member. He is a member who is a layman. This lay membership colors totally the type of vital contribution to be made for the good of the Body. On the one hand, the layman is a member who within the Church is under the leadership of the Holy Father, the bishops, the priests. In relation to the hierarchy the layman is a subject and a collaborator or helper. He works under and with the hierarchy. He is under the Holy Father and the bishops in doctrine, worship, discipline. He is under the priest in worship and most often, according to the bishop's mandate, in doctrine and discipline.

Obey your superiors and be subject to them, for they keep watch as having to render an account of your souls; so that they may do this with joy, and not with grief, for that would not be expedient for you.15

The truth and life of Christ come to the layman through the hierarchy.

On the other hand, the layman is a member who toward the world is a leader. He must develop and build up the world through family life, through government, through the various professions of teacher, doctor, plumber, street-cleaner, and so forth. Even more, he must consecrate the world by working as a follower of Christ, by bringing the truth and life of Christ to influence the world.

Then God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it. Have dominion over the fish of the sea, the birds of the air, the cattle and all the animals that crawl on the earth."16

14 I Cor., 12: 13-16.

15 Heb., 13: 17.

16 Gen. 1: 28.

Whatever you do in word or in work, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.17

In this field, no priest can really replace a layman. Here the layman is truly on the front lines of the Church.

The activity, the vital contribution of the lay member, is within the Church under the leadership of the hierarchy, and within the world is itself leadership. This activity of the lay member may be activity of the world (lay apostle in broad sense as doctor, teacher) or activity of the Church itself (lay apostle in strict sense as catechist). When this activity is the activity of the Church, the very communication of the life and truth of Christ, it must necessarily demand closer union with the leaders within the Church. Even when the activity is activity of the world, building up the City of Man, it can only be Christian to the degree that it springs from the truth and life of Christ, received from the hierarchy.

Briefly, according to the spirit of the teaching of Pius XII, the layman is an active member of the Mystical Body of Christ, who within the Church is under the leadership of the hierarchy, who in the world is himself a leader, whose activity is either that of the Church itself (lay apostle in strict sense) or that of the world (lay apostle in broad sense).

For just as in one body we have many members, yet all the members have not the same function, so we, the many, are one body in Christ, but severally members one of another. But we have gifts differing according to the grace that has been given us.

Our Lady of the Snows Scholasticate
Pass Christian, Mississippi

17 Collos., 3: 17. 18 Rom. 12: 4ff.

18

DONALD DIETZ, O.M.I.

CATHOLIC REFLECTIONS ON

O. HOBART MOWRER

For the perceptive Catholic a revealing insight into the profound congruity of the Catholic faith and human nature is to be found in the pages of O. Hobart Mowrer's The Crisis in Psychiatry and Religion.1 Through 241 pages of text encompassing thirteen previously published articles Mowrer works out these basic points:

1. The defects of the Protestant Reformation set the stage for the phenomenon of psychoanalysis which is now increasingly acknowledged as a failure.

2. The future of psychotherapy lies in the repudiation of the "guilt feelings" of psychoanalysis and the acknowledgement of the real guilt of traditional Christianity.

3. For the effective handling of this real guilt not only confession but also adequate expiation is required.

4. The strange affinity of Protestant Christianity and Freudian psychoanalysis is anomalous and potentially disastrous to Protestantism.

The aforementioned revealing insight, it should be added, is, however, not to be equated with total subscription to Mowrer's views. Much to be criticized will be found in his writings, but both the value of his underlying principles and his scientific importance merit detailed attention. Since Mowrer is one of America's foremost experimental psychologists-especially in the field of learning theory—his first pronouncements created something of a sensation (Time, Sept. 14, 1959, p. 69; Newsweek, Sept. 14, 1959, p. 108; America, Sept. 2, 1960, pp. 686-687). Subsequently he has apparently worked doggedly at elaborating and substantiating his basic tenets.

There is much to admire about Mowrer's presentation. Almost 250 books and articles by over 200 authors are cited in his marshalling of evidence. His style is forthright and readable. And

10. Hobart Mowrer, The Crisis in Psychiatry and Religion (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand, Co., 1961).

his fearlessness in clearly stating his views-although defects of research and general information at times make this a point of vulnerability—gives a vibrant quality to his writing. Indisputably, he clearly draws the lines of battle. And because he does, even before reading the material available, it is not difficult to conjecture, both from his content and presentation, on the vortex of protest his pronouncements would occasion from psychoanalysts, psychiatrists, and clergymen of widely ranging persuasions.

Chapter 8, entitled "Psychopathology, and the Problem of Guilt, Confession, and Expiation," Mowrer describes as "nuclear to this book as a whole." Herein he makes his point that in psychopathology guilt is real rather than illusory and that the aim of therapy is consequently not understanding and insight but a changed, repentant view of oneself. To him it is conscience, rather than instincts, that is repressed in neurosis and he finds that this view is now steadily gaining in acceptance.2 Mowrer states, however, that since the doctrine of repression is a "subtle one and one not easily amenable to objective evidence," he will concern himself with a more immediately researchable approach to the problem. He writes:

According to the Freudian view the neurotic should have a history of something like saintliness; whereas, according to the other position, he should have a record (albeit a carefully concealed one) of actual and incontestable misconduct and perversity. This issue should by all means be submitted to systematic investigation on a scale corresponding to its significance. But I confess that, for myself, I am already pretty well persuaded what the results would be and will here merely cite a few examples of the kinds of evidence which is already widely available on the score and which, I, personally find convincing.3

In the second section of the article Mowrer formulates the question: if emotionally ill persons have real guilt rather than

2 He also finds his 1950 statement of this position in Learning Theory and Personality Dynamics (N.Y.: Ronald Press Co.), chapters 18-22, anticipated by A. Runestan, Psychoanalysis and Personality (Rock Island, Ill.: Augustana Press, 1932, 1958), A. T. Boisen, The Exploration of the Inner World (N.Y.: Harper & Bros., 1936), and also by Freud's former disciple, Wilhelm Stekel, Technique of Analytical Psychotherapy (N.Y.: Liveright, 1938, 1950).

3 P. 84.