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been abandoned in the previous month. The Turks and their allies were driven higher up into the oasis; but they still held a front, and were still based upon Ainzara, the nearest detached oasis. It was not until ten days later that the Italians turned them out from here.

The reoccupation of Hamidieh, Henni, and Sidi Mesri reopened the old story of the atrocities and reprisals. The Bersaglieri found their dead from the actions of October 23rd and 26th. There were marks of violence upon the bodies. That was to have been expected. The Arab is cruel in his blood-lust. It is nevertheless probable that the Arab mutilations have been as overstated as were the Italian reprisals. Men who are said to have been buried alive are probably Italian corpses that the Turks hastily interred for sanitary reasons. It is quite possible that some of the socalled mutilations were due to the packs of dogs which infest the oasis. Moreover, it is hard to believe that the evidences of brutality, as described in the Italian journals, could have survived in the minuteness of the detail given, after the exposure of a month of North African sun and torrential rains. There is no doubt that there were nerve-shaking reprisals on both sides, as there have been in every war since history began. It certainly is not the experience of the writer that the Turk is a brutal soldier. The Arab, on the other hand,

holds life so cheaply, and has such curious superstitions concerning a future state, that he indulges in mutilations, believing that they carry a meaning to another sphere.

The fighting has not been confined, however, to the immediate environment of Tripoli. There have been throughout the month attacks by Turkishled and organised Arabs against both Derna and Benghazi. In all of these the Italians have held their own, while at Benghazi they appear to have had a certain amount of success. There was one determined attack upon Khoms towards the end of October in which the Turks and Arabs lost heavily; but the most serious losses that the Turkish garrison suffered outside the Tripoli oasis were at Derna, where, during an unsuccessful attack, the forces. organised by Enver Bey had over 100 killed in one action.

A great deal has been said in various places_about_the probability of the Turks being able to enlist the sympathies of the Senussi cult of Mahommedanism. The chief centre of this cult, it will be remembered, is at Kofra, a great oasis in the Tripoli hinterland. It is quite certain that the Turks, under the cloak of Moslemism, will be able to enlist the sympathies of the cult, but it is doubtful if they will gain more active help than an expression of sympathy. Senussiism has been the brooding mystery of North and Central Africa for the last quarter of a century. It is a particular cult of militant

Mahommedanism which, estab- metres south of Cyrenaica. Of

lished in a chain of almost in-
accessible oases in the hinter-
land of North Africa, has
established a mysterious rep-
utation for effective power
which has never yet been put
to the proof. The agents and
missioners of the Senussi have
stretched out like tentacles
from the heart of Africa to all
the coast gates of the northern
portion of the continent. The
Intelligence Department of the
French War Office, however,
has no great faith in the re-
ported power of the Senussi.
It believes that much of the
cult's reputation is due to the
mystery which has been fostered
by its system of agencies. This
evidence, at the present mo-
ment, is worth considering, as
the French in their colonial
service in the Hinterland of
Tunisia, Algeria, and the
Congo have come into closer
contact with Senussiism than
other European Powers. This
much is certain, that in their
past dealings with European
aggression the cult has shown
a disinclination to push matters
to any issue that might be
interpreted as the pitting of
Senussiism against Christian-
ity. That is the practical view
which guides
guides the French
Colonial Department in its
military relationship with this
almost mythical power. To
come down, however, to actual
facts in relation to the organ-
isation of the Arabs who for
three months have been aiding
the Turkish cause in the Tripoli-
taine, Kofra, the present seat of
Senussiism, is over 1000 kilo-

this great intervening space,
800 odd kilometres are the
Libyan desert. It is probable,
therefore, that when the true
story of the Turkish defence of
Turkey in Africa is told, it will
be found that Fezzan is the
region farthest south
south from
which the Turks have been
able to draw native allies.

A

The initial successes of the Turks in establishing themselves in the oasis in the actual vicinity of Tripoli, without a doubt largely encouraged the Arabs to make common cause in the name of Islam. month of ill success, however, and an ill success accompanied by very considerable slaughter, has probably diminished much of the enthusiasm of the earlier weeks in the campaign. At his very best the Arab is a fickle person, and as each week will now make it more difficult for the Turks to receive munitions from Europe, we shall probably see a great falling off in the tenacity of Neshet Bey's resistance. In all conscience it would seem that he and his gallant garrison have done as much as any Government could reasonably expect from soldiers so unhappily placed. It is usually unprofitable to speculate as to what action soldiers will take in the prosecution of their campaign. It should certainly be Neshet Bey's task now to abandon all attempts at reestablishing by force of arms Turkish supremacy in the seaboard oases. He should withdraw with all the ammunition

and munitions that he can conveniently carry into the interior. A campaign into the interior of the Tripoli hinterland by a European army is not a military manoeuvre to be lightly considered. The Italians, up to date, have shown no sign of considering it or of preparing an advance far removed from their sea base. At least, they have not attempted to purchase a camel transport, without which any serious advance into the desert is doomed to failure.

It would seem, at the time of writing, that Neshet Bey has the intention of falling back upon Gharian, since after the operations by which the Italians both cleared the oasis

and occupied Ainzara there has been no further report of an enemy.

Of the naval operations there is practically nothing to be said: with the exception of one or two captures of blockade - runners, and the shelling of shipping in the Red Sea ports already mentioned, there have been no naval developments. The question of the Dardanelles has been largely canvassed in the Press. It seems, however, highly improbable that Admiral Aubry has ever seriously considered any attempt to force the Dardanelles, any more than he has seriously considered a descent upon either Smyrna or Salonica.

KEPI.

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FRENCH MILITARY AVIATION IN 1911.

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BY T. F. FARMAN.

THE announcement made by the French War Minister that "the experimental phase of military aviation is closed, and the period of the organisation of the Fourth Arm has commenced," is of momentous importance to the whole world. The citizens of the Republic were already convinced of the utility of aeroplanes in war, but M. Messimy's words have enormously increased popular enthusiasm for the aerial craft which the French are more convinced than ever will make them invincible. They have stolen a march on their former victorious foe, and though they are, at least for the present moment, far from contemplating the reconquest of the lost provinces by force of arms, they no longer fear attack. At the beginning of November, General Roques stated, the French aerial fleet already consisted of 170 aeroplanes, and there were 73 expert military aviation pilots, almost as many prentice military aviators, and some 200 men holding the French Aero Club's pilot's certificate, who could, in case of need, be incorporated in the army without any delay. The Commander of the French Aviation Corps refrained from any sort of exaggeration, and abstained from mentioning the large number of aeroplanes ordered by the War Department, but not yet delivered.

Neither did he make any reference to the yet more important contracts for aerial craft which are awaiting the Minister's signature immediately the Budget of 1912 is voted by the Chambers. Even supposing no additional grant is demanded of Parliament for the more active development of the aerial fleet, the French War Department will, at the close of next year, possess at least 500 aeroplanes.

The

The French, being conscious of having gained a decisive advance on all the other peoples of the world, are determined to make the necessary pecuniary sacrifices, not only to keep, but to increase it. The "great precursor," as M. Ader is called, has raised a cry which has been taken up by other persons of more or less note for the immediate purchase of 1000 aeroplanes for the French Army. proposal may be excessive, in presence of the existing situation, but in all probability that number will be surpassed in a shorter time than most people imagine. However, as General Roques pointed out, it is worse than useless to possess aeroplanes without having sufficient well-trained pilots to man them. The War Minister is also conscious of the urgent necessity of training a very large number of military pilots, and has conse

quently decided on the creation of many additional military aviation schools. If the task is undertaken seriously, and there is every reason to believe such will be the case, the number of military aviation pilots can be raised to 1000, or even more, in a comparatively short space of time, especially as all the aeroplane constructors are willing and anxious to train an ever-increasingly large contingent of officers to pilot their machines. Moreover, the already skilled military pilots can serve as professors in the new military aviation establishments. It must, however, be remembered, the military observers also want practice, and the men who ere long will be required on fighting aerial craft will have to receive special training. It is true the defensive and offensive weapons which will be used on aeroplanes have not yet been invented; but, by consenting to furnish the projectiles to be employed in the Michelin Aero-Target Competition, the military authorities have given practical proof of their determination to push forward the armament of their aerial fleet without any further delay. Indeed, when a year ago the War Ministry instituted the Military Aeroplane Competition which was held in October and November, it was with the intention of encouraging the construction of aerial craft capable of carrying the weight of defensive and offensive weapons.

Justification for the confidence of the French in their

Fourth Arm can be found in the exploits of their military pilots during the last twelve months, and especially at the autumn manœuvres. It would take a volume to chronicle the former, which, so far as the general public could see, consisted in aerial voyages only from town to town and sometimes from one end of the country to the other. It is therefore unnecessary to say more about them than that those expeditions were frequently undertaken with a yet more important object than the practising of cross-country flight. Though the military aviation pilots distinguished themselves in all the autumn manoeuvres held in various parts of the country, it will suffice to draw attention to a few of the exploits of those who participated in the shamfighting in the east of France. Twenty of them flew on their machines from Paris and elsewhere to the appointed places of concentration, thus demonstrating practically that in the case of war they would not encumber the roads, as had been predicted. The machines, which were for the most part employed in scouting and despatch-carrying, performed their missions with such precision and promptitude that on many occasions the commanders of the hostile forces were able either to profit by a weak point in their adversary's defence or to parry an unexpected attack. Most of the aerial craft carried two men, the pilot and a military observer, because it was admitted

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