jection to temporal rulers: "Be subject, therefore, to every human creature for God's sake; whether it be to the king as excelling, or to governors as sent by Him for the punishment of evil-doers, and for the praise of the good" (1 Pet. ii. 17). Wives are commanded to be subject to their husbands (1 Pet. iii. 1), and servants to their masters (Eph. vi. 1). And not only are they to show them obedience, but fidelity and honour: "Exhort servants to be obedient to their masters, in all things pleasing. Not contradicting, not defrauding, but in all things showing good fidelity" (Titus ii. 9). "Whosoever are servants under the yoke, let them count their masters worthy of all honour" (1 Tim. vi. 1). These precepts were addressed, not indeed to hired servants, but to slaves; but they apply equally to servants. Since the latter have agreed to accept those who employ them as their superiors, they of course owe them the duties of superiors. Though if they fail in this duty, it is often as much a sin against the seventh commandment as against the fourth; for they defraud their employers by failing to fulfil their own part of the compact they have made with them.

Lastly, the duty of obedience to superiors does not cease because those superiors are bad men, so long as they do not call upon their subjects to do what is bad: "Servants, be subject to your masters with all fear; not only to the good and gentle, but also to the froward" (1 Pet. ii. 18). And our Lord Himself taught this very distinctly to His disciples: "The Scribes and Pharisees have sitten on the chair of Moses. All therefore whatsoever they shall say to you, observe and do: but according to their works do ye not; for they say, and do not" (Matt. xxiii. 1).

CHAP. LXI. Of the Duties of Parents to their Children.

IT has been already said that by implication the fourth commandment speaks not only of the duties of children towards their parents, but also of parents towards their children; and if of parents, so also of other superiors; for these duties are reciprocal; but the commandment specifies that which is more likely to be neglected. Since there is so strong a natural affection in parents for their children, that,

except in an artificial state of society, there does not seem any greater need of teaching parents this duty than there is of teaching brute creatures to take care of their young, as they do so of themselves.

All the duties which parents owe to their children arise from the obligation they are under to love them. This love, to be a true one, must not only be internal, but must manifest itself in their treatment of them. And as the children consist of body and soul, the external duties of parents may be divided into the proper treatment or education first of the body, and secondly of the soul. As to the first, parents are bound to provide their children with sufficient food for nourishment and growth, together with proper clothing and other necessaries, to preserve them from bodily harm, to give them such an education as is fitting for the state of life that belongs to them, and to enable them, as far as they can, to get into the way of gaining a livelihood in some degree suitable to their condition: "If any man have not care of his own, and especially of those of his house, he hath denied the faith, and is worse than an infidel" (1 Tim. v. 8). It is contrary to this duty for parents to refuse their children the means (when it depends on them) either to marry, or to enter religion, when called to do so; or indeed, to place any other obstacle in the

way.

As to that education which regards the soul, parents are bound to provide for all that concerns the well-being of their children in the next world. Hence they are bound, as soon as possible, to have them regenerated by Baptism; to lead them to know and fear God as soon as they are old enough to understand about it. As for more special instruction in Christian doctrine, they are bound to see that their children have this, either through themselves or others, as e.g. by going to school; and not only that they know their religion, but that they practise it also. To this end they are bound to set them good example themselves, and to keep them out of the way of any bad example in others. Parents who commit any sin in presence of their children incur double guilt, because they are so likely to mislead them by their bad example. Lastly, parents are bound to correct their children for their faults. Holy Scripture is

especially strong on this point. God punished the highpriest Heli with such heavy judgments because his children committed great sins and he corrected them not (1 Kings iii. 13). "He who spares the rod spoils his son" (Proverbs xiii. 24). And St. Paul, while he warns parents against provoking their children or correcting them in anger, yet desires that they should be "brought up in the discipline and correction of the Lord" (Eph. vi. 4).

Lastly, not only parents have these duties towards their children, but all other superiors are bound to perform those duties which they owe to their subjects. These duties vary greatly in kind and degree, nor is it possible here to enumerate them. It is sufficient to say that all superiors, in proportion as they share in the position and authority which parents possess, are so far bound to the duties which belong to parents. Thus those who are set over others in temporal things are bound to regard the welfare of their subjects in temporal matters. Ecclesiastical superiors, on the other hand, are bound to see to their subjects in spiritual things. And those who have the entire charge of and authority over others are bound to perform all duties which are thus transferred to them from their parents. What these duties consist in has been already explained.

CHAP. LXII.

The Fifth Commandment: "Thou shalt not kill."

THIS Commandment forbids:

1st. All wilful murder, or unjust taking away of our own or our neighbour's life, as well as every thought, word, or act-such as anger, quarrelling, hatred, or revengewhich tends to the same end.

2d. All spiritual murder, or leading others into sin, by scandal or bad example.

The object of the fifth commandment is to protect our lives and persons from violence. Murder is the only sin expressly mentioned; but every other species of unjust violence against a person, no less than every word or action which is likely to lead him into sin, and thus bring

about the spiritual death of the soul, is implicitly forbidden. In the first place, therefore, the fifth commandment forbids all wilful murder. 1. To kill another accidentally would not be a violation of this commandment, because it is not wilful. If, however, we are engaged in an occupation which may result in the loss of life, or any serious injury, we are strictly bound to take every reasonable precaution against such an event. Thus a person would commit a grievous sin by shooting across a public and frequented road, with the danger of killing or seriously wounding those who might happen to be passing. Thus also a doctor would be guilty of a grievous sin who, from gross ignorance of his profession, left a patient to die for want of the proper remedy, or who caused death by an improper one. 2. Where the act is wilful, there are three cases in which it is lawful to take the life of another. (1) In a just war. Kings and rulers of states have rights to maintain, for which they may have recourse to arms when all other means fail; and their subjects are not only justified, but are bound to assist their sovereign, in carrying on a just war. Practically speaking, the case will rarely happen in which a soldier is not bound to obey his sovereign, because whenever we are certain of the command of a lawful superior, and are not equally certain that the thing which is commanded is wrong, we are bound to obey. (2) In self-defence. If one nation may take up arms to defend its rights, or to resist the unjust encroachments of another, so may private persons, to defend their own lives, take the life of one who attacks them unjustly. This, of course, is understood to mean, whenever it is necessary to go to such an extreme; for if we are able to escape the danger which threatens us in any other way, we are not justified in taking the life of our enemy. (3) In the execution of a just sentence. In the same way as each one may defend himself when unjustly attacked, so may society defend itself against the crimes of any of its members. The well-being of a state, and the protection of its rights from acts of violence, are intrusted to its supreme ruler, and in the exercise of his authority he may punish, even with death, those who are guilty of very great crimes. For

though God alone is the Master of life and death, kings and rulers act as His ministers in the punishment of criminals. Hence it is lawful for any one who acts in the name of his sovereign, and with his sanction, to carry out the sentence of death; but it would be wrong for him to execute the criminal on his own responsibility, even though he were certain of his crime, because those alone who exercise supreme dominion, or to whom special authority has been given, are the representatives of God in the execution of His justice.

With these three exceptions, it is not lawful for us to take away human life. Hence it would be wrong to put to death those who have become a burden to society,who, for instance, are hopelessly mad, or mortally wounded, or who are reduced to such a state of infirmity or suffering that they are weary of existence. Hence, too, it would be wrong to kill persons in order to save them from torture or disgrace. It would be wrong also to put an innocent man to death to preserve the lives of many others, because we are never allowed to do evil that good may come out of it. We may, however, expose ourselves to the risk of death to obtain a great good. Thus, in a just war, a soldier may spring a mine in order to destroy the enemy, though he knew his own life would be lost in the explosion. Thus, too, in the exercise of charity towards the sick, persons may expose themselves to the evident danger of catching a mortal illness.

Secondly, this commandment not only forbids all wilful murder, but also every other act of violence unjustly offered to our persons; and the sin is greater or less according to the amount of the injury which is intended, or to which a person is unjustly exposed. Thus duelling, fighting, quarrelling, and all acts expressive of hatred or desire of revenge, are strictly forbidden, and amount to a mortal sin, when the injury inflicted or the danger incurred is something serious. Nay, where the bodily injury is inconsiderable, the sin may still be grievous when committed against one to whom we owe a special reverence and respect. Thus it would generally be a mortal sin to strike a parent, or one placed high in authority.