41. Rectification.-From this it follows:

(i.) That no blows should be given for lack of readiness to learn (for, if the pupil do not learn readily, this is the fault of no one but the teacher, who either does not know how to make the pupil receptive of knowledge or does not take the trouble to do so).

(ii.) That the subjects that have to be learned by the pupils should be so thoroughly explained to them, that they can understand them as well as they understand their five fingers.

(iii.) That, as far as is possible, instruction should be given through the senses, that it may be retained in the memory with less effort.

42. (For example, the sense of hearing should always be conjoined with that of sight, and the tongue should be trained in combination with the hand. The subjects that are taught should not merely be taught orally, and thus appeal to the ear alone, but should be pictorially illustrated, and thus develop the imagination by the help of the eye. Again, the pupils should learn to speak with their mouths and at the same time to express what they say with their hands, that no study may be proceeded with before what has already been learned is thoroughly impressed on the eyes, the ears, the understanding, and the memory. With this object, it is desirable to represent pictorially, on the walls of the class-room, everything that is treated of in the class, by putting up either precepts and rules or pictures and diagrams illustrative of the subjects taught. If this is done, it is incredible how much it assists a teacher to impress his instructions on the pupils' minds. It is also useful if the scholars learn to write down in their note-books or among their collections of idioms everything that they hear or read, since in this way the imagination is assisted and it is easier to remember them later on.

NINTH PRINCIPLE

43. Nothing is produced by nature of which the practical application is not soon evident.

For example, when a bird is formed it is soon evident that the wings are intended for flying and the legs for running. In the same way every part of a tree has its use, down to the skin and the bloom that surround the fruit.

Therefore

44. Imitation.-The task of the pupil will be made easier, if the master, when he teaches him anything, show him at the same

time its practical application in everyday life. This rule must be carefully observed in teaching languages, dialectic, arithmetic, geometry, physics, etc. If it be neglected, the things that you are explaining will seem to be monsters from the new world, and the attitude of the pupil, who is indifferent whether they exist or no, will be one of belief rather than of knowledge. When things are brought under his notice and their use explained to him, they should be put into his hands that he may assure himself of his knowledge and may derive enjoyment from its application.

Therefore

45. Those things only should be taught whose application can be easily demonstrated.

TENTH PRINCIPLE

46. Nature is uniform in all its operations.

For instance, the production of all birds, and, indeed, of all living creatures, resembles that of any single bird which you may choose. It is only in the minor details that there are differences. So too in the case of plants, the development of one plant from its seed, the planting and the growth of a single tree, serve as illustrations of the way in which all the others, without exception, develop. One leaf on a tree resembles all the others, and in this respect does not change from year to year.

47. Deviation.-Differences of method, therefore, confuse the young, and make their studies distasteful to them, since not only do different teachers use different systems, but even individual teachers vary their method. For example, languages are taught in one way, dialectic in another, though both might be brought under the same method, in accordance with the harmony of the universe, and the universal and intimate relations that exist between objects and words.

48. Rectification.-Henceforth, therefore

(i.) The same method of instruction must be used for all the sciences, the same for all the arts, and the same for all languages. (ii.) In each school the same arrangement and treatment should be adopted for all studies.

(iii.) The class-books for each subject should, as far as is possible, be of the same edition.

In this way difficulties will be avoided and progress will be made easy.-The Great Didactic.

TRANSLATION OF KEATING.

THE BEGINNING OF MODERN PHILOSOPHY

WE SAW in the second volume of this series that Greek philosophy had a consecutive development starting with Thales and reaching its climax in Aristotle. Modern philosophy, beginning with Descartes, forms another connected story of the evolution of thought. The Greek philosophers attacked mainly the problem of what is the permanent reality in the universe: modern philosophy has begun to see that the problem of the true nature of the universe is bound up with the question of the real nature of the self.

Descartes (1596-1650) tried to sweep away all uncertainties and start from one absolutely certain fact, "Cogito, ergo sum," as he expressed it, "I think, and in so thinking I exist." Only what appealed to his mind as clearly as this prime truth was to be accepted as a fact. He believed in the existence of God because he thought there must exist some perfect, infinite Being which is the source of imperfect, finite man. He felt that he could trust his senses as to the material world because such a Being would not deceive. Therefore he accepted the existence of matter as a substance co-ordinate with mind, the essence of mind being thought, the essence of matter being extension, the source of both being God.

Out of this conception of the duality of the universe, rose the question of how mind and matter can act on each other. Geulincx (1625-1669) denied the possibility of any interaction. He thought mind and matter to be like two clocks that run in harmony, not because they interact, but because both are controlled by their maker. Thus Malebranche (1638-1715) declared that "we see all

THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS

By Correggio, 1497-1534.

A

NTONIO ALLEGRI (CORREGGIO) was born at Correggio, near Parma, in 1494. He takes the name by which he is known from his native town. But little is preserved about his life, and most of this is disputed. He early attained local success, and painted the pictures in the cathedral and the church of St. John at Parma. Among his other famous pictures are the "Marriage of St. Catharine" in the Louvre, and "The Nativity" at Dresden.

He was a facile painter, and a great technician, but could not express thought as could Michael Angelo, nor feeling as did Raphael,