All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defective. The following is a list of the defective verbs:

OBS. 1.-Beware is not used in the indicative present. Must is never varied in termination. Ought is invariable, except in the solemn style, where we find oughtest. Will is sometimes used as a principal verb, and as such is regular and complete.

Obs. 2.—Some verbs, from the nature of the subject to which they refer, can be used only in the third person singular; as, It rains; it snows; it freezes; it hails; it lightens; it thunders. These have been

called impersonal verbs. The neuter pronoun it, which is always used before them, does not seem to represent any noun, but, in connexion with the verb, merely to express a state of things.

OF THE PARTICIPLE.

A participle is a word derived from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a verb and an adjective; and is generally formed by adding ing, d, or ed, to the verb: thus, from the verb rule, are formed three participles, two simple and one compound; as, 1. ruling, 2. ruled, 3. having ruled.

Obs. 1.—Almost all verbs and participles seem to have their very essence in motion or the privation of motion. And to all motion and rest, time and place are necessary concomitants; nor are the ideas of degree and manner often irrelevant. Hence the use of tenses and of adverbs. For whatsoever happens, must happen sometime and some where; and, in every event, something must be affected somewhat and somehow. But it does not follow, that the English participles divide time, like the tenses of a verb, and specify the period of action; on the contrary, it is manifest that they do not. The phrase,

men

What verbs are defective? and wherein are they so? and how is it generally formed?

What is a PARTICIPLE?

labouring," conveys no other idea than that of labourers at work; it no more suggests the time, than the place, degree, or manner, of their work. All these circumstances require other words to express them; as, "Men now here awkwardly labouring much to little purpose."

OBS. 2.—Participles retain the essential meaning of their verbs: and, like verbs, are either actioe-transitive, active-intransitive, passive, or neuter, in their signification. For this reason, many have classed them with the verbs. But their formal meaning is obviously different. They convey no affirmation, but usually relate to nouns or pronouns, like adjectives, except when they are joined with auxiliaries to form the compound tenses. Hence some have injudiciously ranked them with the adjectives. We have assigned them a separate place among the parts of speech, because experience has shown that they should be so arranged.

Obs. 3.—The English participles are all derived from the root of their respective verbs, and do not (like those of some other languages) take their names from the tenses. They are reckoned among the principal parts in the conjugation of their verbs, and many of the tenses are formed from them. In the compound forms of conjugation, they are found alike in all the tenses. They do not therefore, of themselves, express any particular time; but they denote the state of the being, action, or passion, in regard to its progress or completion.

CLASSES.

English verbs have severally three participles; the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the Pluperfect. Or, they may be called the First, the Second, and the Third.

I. The imperfect participle is that which expresses the continuance of an action, or that which is now taking place; as, being, loving, seeing, writing—being loved, being seen, being writing.

II. The perfect participle is that which expresses the completion of an action, or that which is past and finished; as, been, loved, seen, written.

III. The pluperfect participle is that which expresses the previous completion of an action, or that which took place before something else mentioned; as, having loved, having seen, having written—having been loved, having been writing, having been written.

How many kinds of participles are there? and what are they called? How is the imperfect participle defined? and what are the examples? How is the perfect participle defined? and what are the examples? How is the pluperfect participle defined? and what are the examples?

The First or Imperfect Participle, when simple, is always formed by adding ing to the radical verb; as, look, looking when compound, it is formed by prefixing being to some other simple participle; as, being reading, being read.

The Second or Perfect Participle is always simple, and is regularly formed by adding d or ed to the radical verb: those verbs from which it is formed otherwise are inserted in the list as irregular.

The Third or Pluperfect Participle is always compound, and is formed by prefixing having to the perfect when the compound is double, and having been to the perfect or the imperfect when the compound is triple; as, having spoken, having been spoken, having been speaking.

Obs. 1.—The participle in tug represents the action or state as continuing and ever incomplete; it is therefore rightly termed the Imperfect participle: whereas the participle in ed always has reference to the action as done and complete; and is by proper contradistinction called the Perfect participle. It is hardly necessary to add, that the terms perfect and imperfect, as thus applied to the English participles, have no reference to time, or to those tenses of the verb which are usually named by these epithets. The terms present and past do denote time, and are in a kind of oblique contradistinction; but how well they apply to the participles may be seen by the following texts: "God was in Christ, reconciling the world unto himself."—" We pray you in Christ's stead, be ye reconciled to God."—St. Paul.

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OBS. 2.—The participle in ing has, by many, been called the present participle. But is as applicable to past or future, as to present time; otherwise such expressions as, "I had been writing," "I shall be writing," would be solecisms. It has also been called the active participle. But it is not always active, even when derived from an active verb for such expressions as, "The goods are selling,"—" The ships are now building," are in use, and not without authority. The distinguishing characteristic of this participle is, that it denotes an unfinished and progressive state of the being, action, or passion; it is therefore properly denominated the Imperfect participle. If the term were applied with reference to time, it would be no more objectionable than the word present.

Obs. 3.—The participle in ed, as is mentioned above, denotes a completion of the being, action, or passion, and should therefore be denominated the Perfect participle. But this completion may be spoken of as

How is the first or imperfect participle formed? How is the second or perfect participle formed? How is the third or pluperfect participle formed?

present, past, or future, for the participle itself has no tenses, and makes no distinction of time, nor should the name be supposed to refer to the perfect tense. The perfect participle of transitive verbs, being used in the formation of passive verbs, is sometimes called the passive participle. It has a passive signification, except when it is used in forming the compound tenses of the active verb. Hence the difference between the sentences, I have written a letter," and "I have a letter written." Obs. 4.—The third participle has most frequently been called the compound or the compound perfect. If this participle is to be named with reference to its meaning, there is perhaps no better term for it than the epithet Pluperfect, which several grammarians have applied to this use. Not because this compound is really of the pluperfect tense, but because it always denotes being, action, or passion, that is, or was, or will be, completed before the doing or being of something else; and, of course, when the latter thing is represented as past, the participle must correspond to the pluperfect tense of its verb; as, Having unfolded his plan, he proceeded to action." Here having unfolded is equivalent to when he had unfolded.

OBS. 5.—Participles often become adjectives, and are construed before nouns to denote quality. Words of a participial form may be regarded as adjectives: 1. When they reject the idea of time, and denote something customary or habitual, rather than a transient act or state; as, A lying rogue, i. e. one addicted to lying. 2. When they admit adverbs of comparison; as, A more learned man. 3. When they are compounded with something that does not belong to the verb; as, unfeeling, unfelt. Adjectives are generally placed before their nouns; participles, after them.

Obs. 6.—Participles in ing often become nouns. When preceded by an article, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun in the possessive case, they are construed as nouns, and ought to have no regimen. A participle immediately preceded by a preposition is not converted into a noun, and therefore retains its regimen; as, "I blame you for wronging him."

Obs. 7.—To distinguish the participle from the participial noun, the learner should observe these four particulars: 1. Nouns take articles and adjectives before them; participles do not. 2. Nouns may govern the possessive case, but not the objective; participles may govern the objective case, but not the possessive. 3. Nouns may be the subjects or objects of verbs; participles cannot. 4. Participial nouns express actions as things; participles refer actions to their agents or objects.

Obs. 8.—To distinguish the perfect participle from the preterit of the same form, observe the sense, and see which of the auxiliary forms will express it thus, loved for being loved, is a participle; but loved for did love, is a preterit verb.

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What are the participles of the following verbs, according to the simplest form of conjugation: Repeat, study, return, mourn, seem, rejoice, appear, approach, suppose, think, set, come, rain, stand, know, deceive?

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING.

CHAP. V. ETYMOLOGICAL.

In the Fifth Chapter, it is required of the pupil—to distinguish and define the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of the articles, nouns, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, and participles.

The definitions to be given in the Fifth Chapter, are two for an article, six for a noun, three for an adjective, six for a pronoun, seven for a verb, two for a participle—and one for an adverb, a conjunction, a preposition, or an interjection. Thus :

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EXAMPLE PARSED.

Honesty has the surest reward attending it."

Honesty is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case.

1. A noun is a word which is either the name of a person, animal, place, thing, or idea.

2. A common noun is a name applied generally to all individuals, places, or things, of the same kind or sort.

3. The third person is that which denotes the person or thing merely spoken of.

4. The singular number denotes but one.

5. The neuter gender is that which denotes things that are neither male nor female.

6. The nominative case is that form of a noun or pronoun, which denotes the subject of a verb.

Has is an irregular active-transitive verb, from have, had, having, had; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and singular number.

1. A verb is a word which affirms what is said of a person or thing.

2. An irregular verb is one that does not form the preterit and the perfect participle by adding d or ed to the present tense.

3. An active-transitive verb is one that expresses an action which has some person or thing for its object.

4. The indicative mood is that form of the verb which simply expresses or declares what is said or done, or asks a question.

What is required of the pupil in the Fifth Chapter for parsing? How many definitions are here to be given for each part of speech? How is the following example parsed? "Honesty has the surest reward attending it." [Now parse, in like manner, the six lessons of the Fifth Chapter.]