BOOK consideration the lakes that flow from them; but without XCIV. reference to that circumstance, our calculation as to the

mountains.

six largest rivers in Europe may be considered sufficiently accurate. The other rivers next to those which have been enumerated, are the Po, the Rhone, the Ebro, the Guadalquiver, the Tagus, the Loire, the Elbe and the Vistula, but all of them united are not equal to the Wolga. The Kama, a mere feeder of the Wolga, and one that is little known, is not less than the Rhine, a river celebrated in history. The Seine, with all its tributary streams, does not make up 0.009 of all the European rivers.

European We pass from our imperfect account of the rivers to that of the European mountains; the Ural range, which is common to us with Asia, has been described in a preceding volume. It does not form a continuous line on the side of Europe, but resembles a number of hills rising insensibly from the centre of Russia in an eastern and north-eastern direction; although their summits are broken or ill-defined, they are placed on an elevated base, and their absolute level is not less than that of the mountains in Silesia and Saxony; their greatest height is equal to 7000 feet. The hills or rocks that traverse Russia are not visibly connected with the Ural or any European range.

The Do

The table-land of Waldai, from which the Wolga descends to the Caspian, the Dwina to the Baltic and the Dneiper to the Black Sea, is a lofty plain crowned with hills from twelve to thirteen hundred feet above the level It becomes much lower on the side of Poland; the sources of the Beresina, the Neimen and the Pripetz are situated on a plain of which the inclination is imperceptible, and the height not more than two hundred feet above the sea at the mouth of these rivers. The elevation of the granite rocks which are connected with the Carpathian mountains and divide the course of the Dneiper, is also very low, it cannot be distinguished near the shores at the sca of Azof.

The Dofrines, or the Scandinavian Alps, are better feine moun- marked than the Ural chain, but as completely isolated

tains.

from the other mountains in Europe. The whole range BOOK extends from Cape Lindeness or the southern point of XCIV. Norway to Cape North in the island of Mageroe. The central mountains are more closely connected. Lapland and the south-west of Norway are crowned by two separate chains. Steep rocks, frightful precipices, high cataracts, and glaciers recall to our recollection the lofty mountains on our globe; the same range abounds in picturesque beauties; but its most elevated summits are not more than seven or eight thousand feet above the level of the sea. The Seves an inland branch, which bound Norway and Sweden, enter into the latter kingdom and terminate in a number of hills. Others which traverse Lapland and are connected with Finland, are lost round the numerous lakes in that country. The Grampian or Caledonian mountains form, like those The Calein Wales, a separate group of several small and parallel donian chains, their greatest elevation does not amount to 5000 feet. These chains are without doubt connected by a submarine continuation with the rocks in the Orkney, Shetland and perhaps the Feroe islands; their general direction is from southwest to northeast.

The Cambrian mountains in the principality of Wales, and those in the north west of England, are lower than the Caledonian range.

mountains.

A plain extends on the north and the east of Europe, two Great distinct chains, those of Caledonia and Scandinavia rise plain.

above it. The south and the centre of the same continent present a very different character. All the mountains, from the pillars of Hercules to the Bosphorus, from Etna to Blocksberg are so many parts of the same series. We shall however both on account of several physical considerations and in conformity to the common method, divide them into four ranges.

northern

That of the Alps is the most remarkable and most cen- The Alps. tral of them all. Mount Blanc, the highest mountain in Europe, is situated in the principal Alpine chain. The length of the line from Mount Ventoux in Dauphiny to

BOOK Mount Kahlenberg in Austria, is about 600 miles. The XCIV. height of the summits is from ten thousand to fifteen thous

The Appenines.

Dinarian
Alps.

and feet; that of the passages across the principal chains is generally from five to six thousand. But the elevation of the plains on the north of the Alps, in Switzerland and Bavaria, is about a thousand, and in some places two thousand feet, while those in Lombardy and Hungary, which bound the Alpine range on the south and the east, are not much higher than the level of the sea. Perpetual ice commences at an elevation between seven and eight thousand feet, and forms in the centre of the Alps frozen seas like those at the poles. The ice disappears at a height above 10,800 feet, the atmospheric vapour is congealed as it descends, and covers the ground with eternal snow. The great depth of the Alpine lakes is peculiar to these mountains, one of them, the lake of Achen is not less than 1800 feet in depth. The phenomena which the structure of the Alps exhibits, the imposing beauties which their different aspects present, their influence on climate and on the movements of waters, cannot at present occupy our attention; it is only our object to determine their position.

The Appenines on the south and the chains connected with them, which may be called the Sub Appenines, form the southern branch of the Alpine series, of which the height is from four to nine thousand feet; but some of the mountains in the neighbouring islands are higher than 10,000. Those in Sicily are evidently connected with the Appenines, and the elevation of the highest or of Etna, is partly to be attributed to volcanic eruptions. But it is as yet uncertain. whether or not there are mountains of an equal height in Sardinia; the connexion between the Corsican and Sardinian chains is also imperfectly known.

An eastern branch of the Alps passes between the feeders of the Danube and the Adriatic Sea, and unites the chain with that of Mount Hemus. These mountains are very narrow in many parts of Carniola and Dalmatia; the height of their summits is from seven to ten thousand feet.

Jura, Vos

The northern branch of the Alps includes the chain of BOOK Jura from Geneva to Bâle, and that of Vogeses or Vosges, XCIV. from Langres to the neighbourhood of Mayence. The last of these is connected with the mountains in central Ger- ges. many and consequently with the Carpathian range, which joins the Alps in Austria.

The chain of Cevennes and its dependences, the vol- TheCevencanic mountains of Auvergne, are considered a branch nes. of the Alps, although they are united to the Pyrenees by the Black mountain and separated from the Alps by the narrow valley of the Rhone.

garras.

The peninsula of the Pyrenees is formed by a central Pyrenees. plain of about 1000 or 1500 feet in height, and on it are placed groups of mountains and different chains distinctly marked. The Pyrences in the north, and the The AlpuAlpujarras or the Sierra Nevada, in the south, may be compared to the two outer bulwarks of the base. The elevation of the first or the Pyrenees, is about 9000 or 10,000 feet, the second are from 10,000 to 11,000, near the centre. But that height does not extend to a great distance, as in the Alps; and the Pyrenees are not nearly equal to them in breadth; on that account the phenomena of ice and perpetual snow are not so remarkable. The mountains in Gallicia and in Asturias are imperfectly known, the intermediate chains or the Guadarama between the two Castilles, the Sierra Morena to the north of Andalusia, and the Estrelhas in Portugal are not higher than 5000 or 6000 feet. We shall examine in our description of the particular countries in which they are situated, their mutual positions and supposed relations, for some of them, it may be remarked, have not been determined. It is sufficient to observe at present that we are not entitled to conclude that there is any connexion between the Pyrenees and Mount Atlas, or even between the Azores and the Canaries.

Mount Hemus and its branches are situated at the other Mount Hemus. extremity of Europe in a peninsula not so well defined as that of Spain. In the present defective state of our know

BOOK ledge, the Despoti-Dag or the ancient Scomius, north of MaXCIV. cedonia, may be considered the centre from which four chains

extend. The first is that of the Albano-Dalmatian mountains, which are attached to the Alps; the second or the range of Hemas stretches out in an eastern direction until it is abruptly lost in the waters of the Euxine; the third, or the inland chain of Rhodope separates Thrace from the Egean sea; the fourth is distinguished by the poetic names Olympus, of Olympus, Pindus, Oeta, Parnassus, Helicon and Lycaus, it crosses Greece and passes into the islands of the Archipelago. As the Hellenic mountains have never been accurately measured, it is impossible to determine whether or not they are higher than the Appenines; we are, however, inclined to believe that they are, from the long continuance of snow on them.

Pindus,&c.

Carpathian and

The Carpathian and Hercynian mountains are scparatHercynian, ed from the Alps and Hemus by the Danube, and in two places, the first in Austria, the second between Servia and Walachia, the branches of these mountains contract the bed of the river, and form several narrow passes. The whole range may be supposed the forepart of the Alps, the highest summits that have been measured, are not more than 9000 feet; but the general elevation is from four to five thousand, or, in other words, the same as the passages across the Alpine chain. Their breadth is considerable, they bound immense plains or enclose high vallies, such as those of Bohemia and Transylvania. No other mountains in Europe are so rich in gold, silver and copper. Their height is not comparatively great, no glaciers have been observed on them; they are not very steep, and there are none of these cavities which serve as reservoirs for the deep lakes in the Alps and the Dofrines. The Transylvanian mountains form the principal part of the range, they are not at present distinguished by any particular name; in ancient times they were called the Bastarnian Alps; the other parts are the Carpathian or Crapack mountains between Hungary and Poland, tho Sudetes or the hills of the giants between Silesia and Bohemia, the metallic mountains or the Ertzburge, between the last country and Sax