Of these, the

What

1. The first sentence consists of three words. words sparrows and birds are nouns. What is the other? is its use? In order to answer these questions we must look at the whole sentence. The word sparrows calls up to our mind certain familiar objects, and the word birds calls up before the mind a much larger and more varied class of objects. What does the word are suggest to the mind? What does it assert? Does it not assert that there is some connection, some relationship between the "sparrows" and the "birds"? Does it not assert that the "sparrows" form part of the class called "birds"? This seems to be what it does; and it appears to do nothing else.

The word are expresses the perception of a relationship between "sparrows" and "birds."

2. The second sentence names "Milton "" and " a poet," and the word was expresses the discernment that "Milton" belongs to the class of men called "poets."

3. The third sentence, "Chalk is white," presents us with a slightly different example. There is a substance, "chalk," named, and a quality, "white," also named or denoted. The word "is" expresses the perception of a relationship between the substance called "chalk" and the quality denoted by the word "white." It asserts that the quality "white" belongs to the "chalk "—that it is one of the properties of chalk.

4. Look next at the sentence "She sleeps." "She" denotes a person. The word "sleep," by itself, is the name of a state. But when it stands as it does in the sentence, we have not "sleep merely called up to our minds, but the sentence suggests, and indeed asserts, that the person and the " sleep" are found together. If we ask ourselves which of the two words suggests this connection, we become aware of the fact that it is not the word she," for until "sleep" was named there was nothing to connect in thought with the person. As there is left only the word "sleeps," it must be this word which asserts that there is a relationship or connection between the person and the "sleep."

So that the word "sleeps" plays two parts: (1) it denotes a state, and (2) it asserts that there is a relationship between the person and that state. Hence the predicate, even here, is found to contain two distinguishable parts or meanings: a part which denotes something, viz., "sleep," and a part which asserts that the "sleep" is related to the person. Both of these meanings are contained in the one word "sleeps."

Next, let us examine the sentence "Children speak." The word "children" denotes the persons we are talking about. The word " speak" calls up to our mind a certain activity, which we may call "speaking." But it does more; it asserts that the 'speaking" is produced by the children, or that it is found where the children are. Here again the predicate is found to consist of two distinguishable parts: (1) there is something named or denoted, viz., "speaking," and (2) there is an assertion that that something is produced by the children-that there is a definite relationship between the "speaking" and the children.

The last sentence, "Harry made a kite," requires special notice. "Made" suggests to our minds a certain activity, and asserts that that activity is manifested by Harry." So far it resembles the last sentence. So that here also the predicate consists of at least two parts: (1) a certain activity is denoted, viz., “making,” and (2) it is asserted that there is a causal relationship between "Harry" and that activity. It is important to be clear about this first.

A peculiarity remains to be noticed. The activity "making is one that requires something more than a person to exhibit the activity there must be something to be acted upon, or something produced. That something, too, must be named; and it is named. It is a kite that is produced by the activity.

The most important word in the sentence. The Verb.

We have seen from the above illustrative examples that the predicate, one of the two parts of which every sentence consists, always contains, in respect to meaning, two distinguishable parts. There is always something denoted by the predicate, or part of the predicate, and there is always an assertion that that something belongs to, or is related to, the person or thing denoted by the subject. In the sentences

the two elements of the predicate are represented by separate words. Now the words are, was, and is have no other use in the sentence except to express the perception or recognition of a relationship between the person or thing denoted by the subject, and the person or thing named in the predicate.

It is very important to understand these four sentences, as they enable us to understand all others.

It is evident that the perception of relationship between the things named is the thought itself; and the word which expresses this perception is the most important one in the sentence. We now want a name for the word which expresses the most important part of the meaning of every sentence. It is called a Verb. Are, was, and is are therefore verbs; and any word which expresses the perception of a relationship between things must also be called a verb.

We found that the words "sleeps," "speak," "made," although each is only one word, contain, severally, two parts or meanings; and that, besides denoting a state or an activity, each expresses the perception of a relationship between that state or activity and the person or thing denoted by the subject. Hence these words, in common with such words as are, was, is, assert the existence of a relationship between things; and all words having this function 1 are verbs.

Of the two things named or denoted in every assertion one is usually a person or object, the other an activity or state; as, Men think. But both the things may be attributes, as Patience is a virtue; or both things may be objects, as Bats are mammals ; or one of the things may be a person, object, or substance, and the other an attribute, as William was stern, Chalk is white.

Every verb asserts that there is, or was, or will be, or may be, a relationship between certain things specified. This distinguishes the verb from all other words, and furnishes us with a means for defining the verb.

Definition of the Verb. A Verb is a word which asserts a relationship between persons or things named or denoted. One of the things (or the person) is denoted by the subject, the other, when it is a state or an activity, is denoted by the verb itself.

Examples. Is, am, are, was; make, sing, draw, have, explode.

Questions. 1. Point out the function of the verb in the sentence Bread

is food.

2. Show that the meaning of the predicate consists of two parts in the sentences Birds fly, Summer arrived, John teaches.

3. Define the verb, and illustrate your answer by three

sentences.

4. Which is the most important word in the sentence? Give

a reason for your answer.

5. Collect the verbs from the sentences in Sections 6 and 7 (p. 252).

Exercise 6. Analyse the sentences in Section 6 (p. 252).

1 The function of anything is its special use or office. It is the part the thing plays in the accomplishment of some purpose, and it is the most important feature or characteristic of the thing.

ENLARGEMENT OF THE SUBJECT AND OBJECT. ADJECTIVES.

Amongst the words which formed enlargements of the subject or object we have had the following words :

Some (birds); these, two, healthy (children); this (cat);

those, little (mice).

Each of these words denotes some peculiarity of the persons or things denoted by the noun. The word some shows that several, but not all, birds are referred to or denoted: it shows vaguely how many birds are denoted. These shows that the children referred to are some who are near; two shows exactly how many; healthy denotes a quality of the children; this indicates that the cat is near; those that the mice are near but more distant than the cat; little denotes a quality of the mice.

The predicate, too, as we have seen, often consists of the verb is and a word which denotes a quality. Thus in the last section we had the sentences,

James is tall. He is diligent. She is cheerful.

Tall denotes a special quality of James, for all boys are not tall. Diligent, too, denotes a special quality, for all boys are not diligent. Cheerful denotes a special quality also, since all persons are not cheerful.

The words the and a require special notice. The, used with a noun, denotes that the person or thing named is, in some unspecified way, clearly isolated from others of the class to which it belongs. A, used with a noun, denotes that the person or thing named is, for the moment, isolated from others of the same class. Both words, therefore, denote isolatedness, either in fact or in thought; and this is a special character of the person or thing denoted by the noun.

The whole group of words we have just been considering resemble each other in one point only: they each denote some special character (in a person or thing) to which we wish to draw attention. Such words are called Adjectives. We may now define the adjective.

Definition of the Adjective. An Adjective is a word used to denote some distinguishing character in the person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun with which it is used.

Examples. Good, large, beautiful; five, some; this, the, a.

EXTENSION OF THE PREDICATE. ADVERBS.

Amongst the "Extensions of the Predicate" we have had the words,

Occasionally, everywhere, gracefully, completely. These "extensions" modify the assertion contained in the predicate in respect to time, place, manner, or degree; and an "extension" may deny the assertion contained in the predicate. Thus, we write occasionally; gravitation acts everywhere; an action may be performed gracefully, or completely; or it may not be performed gracefully, or indeed at all.

Again, we sometimes require to denote the degree in which the quality denoted by an adjective is present; as, He is very diligent. Similarly, we often require to indicate the degree in which some quality denoted by an adverb is exhibited; as, They moved most gracefully.

Now, these words which modify assertions, or specify the degree in which some quality is exhibited, form a class of words distinguished by their function1 from all other words. They are called Adverbs. Our examples show that the adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, of an adjective, or of another adverb; and on this fact we shall base our definition of the adverb.

Definition of the Adverb. An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Verb, of an Adjective, or of another Adverb.

Examples. Now, away, quickly, rather, not.

The student should not allow himself to use words unless he can represent to himself clearly their meaning. He should ask himself what is meant by saying that the Adverb modifies the meaning of a Verb, or an Adjective, or another Adverb ? If he goes deep enough he will find that the Adverb denotes some variable element in the relationship implied, or in the activity denoted, by a Verb (time, place, manner); or in the quality denoted by an Adjective (degree); or in the variable element denoted by another Adverb (degree).

Questions. 1. In what parts of the sentence are Adjectives found? What is the function of the Adjective?

2. Write five sentences, each containing one or more Adjectives. (Underline.)

3. In what part of the sentence are Adverbs usually found? Give five examples of Adverbs not forming an Extension of the Predicate, or only a subordinate part of the Extension.

4. Define the Adverb, and write five sentences, each containing a different kind of Adverb. (Underline the Adverbs.) Collect all the Adjectives and Adverbs from the sentences in Section 4 (p. 251).

5

Exercise 7. Analyse the sentences in Section 7 (p. 252).

1 What is meant by the function of a word?