CHAPTER IV.

ACCIDENCE.

The Functions Performed by Words.

CONSTANT AND VARIABLE FUNCTIONS.

OUR analysis of the Simple Sentence showed us that every sentence consists of a subject and predicate. We found, too, that some predicates require an Object, others a Complement; that the Subject and Object may be "enlarged" by other words; and that the Predicate may have some modifying words which we called the Extension of the Predicate.

We found, also, that Nouns and Pronouns, in different ways, denote the persons or things which are the subject of the assertion, or the object of an activity; and that this is their function. Adjectives we found forming Enlargements of the Subject and Object, and that this, and similar duties, constitute the function of the adjective, viz., to denote some distinguishing or special character of the persons or things named by the noun.

The words which form the most important part of the predicate, what in fact is usually called the predicate, we called Verbs. The name Verb is restricted to those words whose function it is to form predicates, or the essential part of predicates. The words which modify the meaning of the predicate, or of an adjective, we called Adverbs; and they were seen to be distinguished from other words by this very function.

In short, we learnt that each word in the sentence has some special use or function; that the name given to any word is really the name of a function or duty discharged in the sentence; and that all words performing a given function have the name of the function. Thus, a Noun, so long as it is a Noun, has for its function to name and denote a person or thing, or several persons or things. This function belongs to every noun, and belongs to it always. Similarly, each Part of Speech has a certain function to perform always, a function which it never loses. Thus, each Part of Speech has a constant or invariable function.

The recognition of these functions has enabled us to classify all words. We found that as there are eight functions there are eight classes of words. Up to the present our work has been chiefly classification, and our classification is based on constant functions.

On examining the Parts of Speech more closely, we find that the Noun and Pronoun, for example, in addition to denoting some person or thing, may also connote or mark whether one, or more than one, is denoted; whether the person or thing denoted is male or female, or neither; and whether the person or thing is the subject of the assertion or the object of an activity. But each duty performed by a word is a function, and such functions as we have just noticed are different at different times for the same word.

We therefore find that some parts of speech have one constant function, and in addition one or more variable or changeable functions.

This is quite a new branch of our subject, one on which we have not hitherto entered. The variable uses or functions of words and the investigation of them are called Accidence.

As we proceed with accidence we shall find that very often a change of function is accompanied by some change in the form or spelling of the word. The change which a word undergoes in order to fit it to exhibit any change of function is called Inflection. Inflection is also the study of forms introduced to mark changes of function, and it is the outward and visible sign of Accidence. There may, however, be change of function without any corresponding change of form; in other words, there may be accidence without inflection to indicate it.

We shall find that the only parts of speech which have variable functions, in addition to a constant function, are the Noun and Pronoun, the Adjective, the Verb, and the Adverb.

We shall now proceed to illustrate the changes which these parts of speech exhibit, leaving the forms appropriate to each for separate treatment. We are to note the accidents or changes which the five parts of speech named are liable or subject to.

The Variable Functions of Words,

THE VARIOUS MODIFICATIONS OF FUNCTION WHICH WORDS EXHIBIT.

Nouns and Pronouns.

1. We have seen that the essential function of a noun is to denote persons or things. But a noun may add to this primary function one or more accessory functions. Thus men not only denotes an aggregate of characters which together constitute a man, but connotes,1 or notes along with these, a repetition of this aggregate—that is, it has absorbed into the name man an additional idea of number. This is an accessory function, namely, to connote or represent Number.

2. Again, the word lioness has added to the aggregate of characters which constitute a lion an accessory one of female sex; and the absence of this character, then, necessarily introduces another one, namely, that of male sex. Hence a second accessory function of nouns is to connote or represent sex. function is called Gender.

This accessory

3. Next, let us look at the sentence, John broke Harry's kite. (a) The word John not only denotes a particular person, but one who is the subject of thought and speech.

The student should carefully distinguish between the words denote and connote. To denote a thing means to stand for that thing. Each of the qualities or attributes of the thing is noted along with its other attributes, and is therefore said to be connoted (con together).

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(b) Similarly, kite not only denotes a thing of a certain class, but one which was the object of the activity denoted by the verb broke.

(c) "Harry's" not only denotes a certain individual, but associates with that person an accessory idea of

ownership.

Consider also the sentence, The book is on the table. In this sentence on denotes the relation in which the book is to something. Now, there can be no relation" without something related ; a relation implies a thing related -that is, requires a complement," or object occupying or entering into

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the relation.

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Here, therefore, are three more accessory functions assumed by the Noun :

(a) That of denoting the Subject (of thought and speech).
(b) That of denoting the Object (of an activity, or completing
a relation ").

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(c) That of marking Ownership or Possession (of something). These three functions together constitute what is called Case.

4. Lastly, let us examine the sentence, John broke Harry's kite, from another point of view. John not only denotes a certain person, but one of whom we are speaking (in contradistinction to one who is speaking, or one who is spoken to). This accessory function is to connote Person; that is, to denote in which of the above relations the given individual stands to the speaker.

To make the matter as simple as possible, we have used nouns only in the above examples. The student, however, will find on trial or reflection that pronouns may be treated in precisely the same manner, and that Person will then become more distinct. Take, for example, in (1) We, I; (2) She, he; (3) He broke my kite.

We thus see that in addition to their primary or invariable function Nouns and Pronouns may and do assume other secondary and variable functions. These variable functions are called respectively :

Number, which marks the difference between one thing and more than one.

Gender, which indicates the sex of the person or thing denoted.

Case, which distinguishes between the subject of speech and the object of activity, or denotes possession or ownership.

Person, which distinguishes between the speaker, the person addressed, and the person or thing spoken of.

Questions. 1. What is meant by Accidence and Inflection? sentences to illustrate your answer.

Give

2. What is meant by saying that the Noun "man" is of the Singular Number and of the Masculine Gender?

3. In the sentence, I corrected William's exercise, what is the case of the words in italics? Give reasons for your

answer.

Verbs. Taking examples as before, let us examine the following sentences:

I hear you.

You heard me.

They will hear us.

1. In the first sentence the verb hear not only has the usual function of a verb, but incorporates with that function an accessory one of connoting present time. Heard and will hear add to their simple function that of connoting past time and future time respectively.

These three accessory functions are, together, called Tense.

2. In the first of the accompanying sentences should hear embodies another idea with its function proper, namely, mere conception or imagination, as distinct from a perception of fact or reality. "I hear you" distinctly states a fact or reality: I don't conceive that I hear you, I perceive the fact, or know it. There is here an expression of perception, or discernment (which implies the absence of conception). On the other hand, "I should hear you" merely affirms that I conceive it possible that I may hear you that I can imagine circumstances which may render it possible to hear you. There is here an expression of conception (which implies the absence of perception).

Again, "Hear me" does not affirm that anyone does actually hear me. It affirms that I conceive it possible for the individual addressed to hear me, and desire or command him to do so.

We have thus the following three accessory functions of the verb :

(a) That of expressing the conception of some relationship.

These three accessory functions of the verb are, together, called

Mood.

3. The annexed sentences will illustrate a third modification of function, of which Transitive Verbs are capable.

He finished his task.

The task was finished.

(a) The Transitive Verb finished in the first sentence carries with it a subtle force or meaning which implies that the subject of speech is the cause of the activity involved in the word finished.

(b) Was finished, on the other hand, distinctly implies that the subject of speech is not the cause of the activity, but the passive object of it.

We have thus two other accessory functions discharged by the verb :

(a) That of connoting active relationship between the subject t of speech and the activity specified.

(b) That of connoting passive relationship between the subject of speech and the activity denoted.

These two accessory functions are, together, called Voice.

4. Again, consider the sentences→→

I see. Thou seest. He sees. We see. You see. They see.

In the first, see involves and suggests the ideas of Number and Person. This is perhaps not noticed until we come across seest and sees, in the second and third sentences, both of which, as well as see, are then felt to involve the idea of Person. It is only by comparing the first three sentences with the last three that the idea of Number in the verb distinctly stands forth.

Thus, in addition to its primary and constant function the verb is capable of assuming other variable functions. These are five in number, and bear the following names :

Tense, which is the function of representing an accessory idea of time (Past, Present, Future).

Mood, which is the function of expressing an accessory idea of absence of conception, conception, or conception with desire. Voice, which is the function of marking active relationship or passive relationship to the activity denoted by the Transitive Verb.

Number, which is the function of indicating whether an assertion is made of one, or of more than one.

Person, which is the function of representing relation to the speaker.

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