The absence of that species of paternal tie which still, in a great measure, exists in England between the landlord and the occupier, and induces a spirit of co-operation productive equally of private and public benefit, affords, in itself, a sufficient cause of neglect and ill-management.

Leases for a considerable term are granted throughout the whole of the country; but, in general, with attendant circumstances destructive of the advantages they appear calculated to produce. They are destitute of clauses restraining the tenant to a salutary succession of crops; and the grantee has often the privilege of re-letting to others. "Thus," to use the words of Mr. Young," the over-grown tenant, who is probably no farmer, has that security which the cultivator of the land should have; who, on the contrary, is often only tenant at will. In this pernicious system, long leases are practised, without one good effect flowing from them." Where the tenancy of land is thus a matter of barter, and the eagerness for an immediate increase of rental prevents a provision for the maintenance of the soil in a healthful condition, a flourishing state of agriculture is not to be expected.

The system of granting a long lease to presumed capitalists, either through the usual temptation of a sum of money, or for the purpose of simplifying the mode of receiving a rental, is, assuredly,

It is observed by Mr. Wakefield that the "income of estates in Ireland varies from the lowest value to £100,000 per annum ;" but, as it has been a common practice to grant leases for ever, or for 999 years, the fee of extensive estates often belong to persons who at present receive very little "head-rent." This custom, by which the possessors of landed property would appear to have shown a blamable indifference to the interests of posterity, is justly ascribed, by Mr. Young, to the small value of land in Ireland, before, and even through a considerable part of, the last century, joined to "the unfortunate civil wars, and other intestine divisions, which, for a long space of time, kept this unhappy country in a state rather of devastation than improvement." Under such circumstances, short, or even determinable leases, were not sufficient encouragement for a settlement; but the practice was injuriously continued after the original motives ceased to operate.

a severe grievance to the country, and merits all the reprobation which it has frequently experienced. In this system the lease of landed property is the floating representation of a specific bonus, and is as much an object of speculation in the national market, as the nominal thousands of the Stock Exchange. It passes through various hands, and creates middle-men, of different degrees, who sever the landlord and the occupier beyond all hope of re-union.

There have occurred, lately, ingenious writers who seek to defend the custom of creating these middle-men; but, as it would appear, such authors are actuated rather by a fondness for attracting notice from bold novelties of opinion, than by any more rational motive. That peculiar cases exist, in which, from the present state of Ireland, there may be propriety in admitting an intermediate tenant, must, however, be allowed. Such a position of circumstances is supposed by Mr. Wakefield, in his recent statistical work, and we present the substance of his remarks.—“ If an extensive tract of country be waste, or nearly in a state of nature, it would answer no useful purpose to place on it a number of indigent persons destitute of skill in agriculture. The only desirable tenant for property of this description, must be a man possessed of money and agricultural experience; and when such a person shall have improved the land it must be equitable that he should reap the benefit of his exertions. Thus, he would divide the estate into small portions among active sub-tenants; and the landlord ought to rejoice in a prosperity so intimately connected with his own, and so truly beneficial to the country." That such instances have occurred we are convinced from personal knowledge; but they act as no excuse for persevering in the system on an indiscriminate scale. The character of too many of these intervening tenants, and the evils inflicted by their possession of power, produce the most weighty calamities experienced by the labouring classes.

The very general want of capital amongst the small farmers, induces the frequent custom of persons uniting their means, and entering on a farm in the shape of a joint-stock company. Thus, one furnishes a horse, and another a cow, whilst all contribute their

personal labour to the general fund. It must be superfluous to expatiate on the evils naturally arising from such a practice, where there is no directing mind, and an unavoidable want of a due stimulus to individual exertion.

The size of farms, as well as the mode of culture under which they are placed, varies greatly in different parts of the country; and in this, as in many other particulars relating to Ireland, extremes are more usually found than the temperate mediocrity essential to the solid prosperity of a nation. In the manufacturing districts of the north, the farms, if such the small allotments of land may be termed, are limited to a few acres ; and agriculture

is there so entirely subservient to manufactures, that the severe remark made by Mr. Young is still in some measure applicable : "The cultivators of these lands no more deserve the name of farmers, than the occupier of a mere cabbage-garden." In the counties of Limerick, Tipperary, Roscommon and Meath, the grazing farms are of extraordinary extent, one occupier frequently holding more than a thousand acres. In the arable counties, as Kilkenny, Carlow, and Kildare, a more judicious mediocrity is often found, although inordinate disproportions are still too common for the real interests of society, particularly as regards the formation of a valuable class of husbandmen who feel no true want, and covet no meretricious and enervating enjoyment.

The most serious evil in this country, as relates to the size of farms, assuredly consists in the minute tenures into which arable lands are broken. Poetry may sigh over those days in which

"Every rood of ground maintain'd its man,"

but such a distribution of property is evidently one of the greatest calamities that a country can experience; as it tends to produce a redundant population, groveling in a sordid semblance of content, and nurturing a pernicious rudeness of customs. This evil is felt by Ireland throughout some of her finest districts, and is partly to be ascribed to the desire entertained by landlords of augmenting their political influence, by the creation of a miserable race of freeholders, whose value in society is estimated solely by their numbers as voters towards returning a member of the imperial

senate.* The habits of the tenants, however, chiefly operate in producing the injurious sub-division of farms. The small farmers having rarely money to bestow, commonly make a partition of lands on the marriage of a son.

That mixture of grazing and tillage, which is so frequent, in England, is of rare occurrence in this country, except on the farms of gentlemen, with whom the practice of husbandry is merely a local convenience, or an amusement. Nor are there any large tracts of country exclusively devoted to the breeding of cattle, as in the Highlands of Scotland.†

We have already noticed the principal grazing counties, and observed that the lands occupied by the chief graziers are usually of great extent. These tracts have been termed, by a competent judge (Mr. Arthur Young) "some of the finest pastures in the world;"' and their fertility is indeed extraordinary. In the substance of the following remarks, and in many other particulars of intelligence conveyed in this section, we profit by the opinions of Mr. Young, and the very extensive inquiries instituted by Mr. Wakefield, whose attention was long and successfully directed to the statistics and agriculture of this country, as is sufficiently proved by his "Account of Ireland," in two volumes quarto.

The qualification of an Irish freeholder is an interest in property, for life, to the annual amount of forty shillings; but, as it is usual in this country to insert lives in leases, freeholders are readily created, without the actual transfer of property.

+ The right of pasturage on mountains is frequently let to the associated inhabitants of a village, each of whom turns out a determinate quantity of stock, usually consisting of cows, goats, and sheep. Butter is the chief article of sale cultivated in the mountainous districts. It is remarked by Mr. Wakefield, that, in apportioning the allotments of the villagers" five goats are considered equal to one cow. Sheep are rated with goats, but are by no means so frequent, for milk is the chief object, and an ewe does not yield nearly the same quantity as a she-goat, yet, now and then, sheep are kept also for this purpose. Some readers, perhaps, may be surprised to hear that sheep are kept on account of their milk, but this custom is not confined to Ireland; it is common in Carmarthenshire, and is sometimes found in other parts of Great Britain." Goats abound in the mountainous parts of Ireland, and are frequently seen browzing in flocks, as in Switzerland.

The grazing of oxen and sheep is seldom combined in this country. Under one system, yearling calves are collected from different parts of the country, and many are carried into the province of Connaught, where they are grazed for some years, but not with a view of fattening them for the butcher. When about four years old they are driven to Ballinasloe fair, which takes place in October, where they are purchased by the graziers of Limerick, Tipperary, Roscommon and Meath; on the rich pastures of which counties they are completed for the shambles. The first winter they are kept upon hay, and are generally sold out before the ensuing fair of Ballinasloe. If beasts are purchased by the grazier in the month of May, they are often fattened and sold by Christmas; but, if not then disposed of, they are fed through the winter with hay, or turned upon old grass. In some instances, although the practice is far from being general, they are assisted at this season with rape, turnips, or potatoes. "From Meath great numbers of fat cattle are shipped alive for, Liverpool; many are sold for the consumption of Dublin and the north; but the other grazing parts of Ireland rely upon Limerick and Cork as beef markets, where it is sold, chiefly for exportation, in a cured or salted state." The exportation of this article forms an important branch of commerce, and is more fully noticed in future pages, appropriated to a consideration of general trade.

*

The Dairy Farms of Ireland form a conspicuous feature in its husbandry, and occupy a greater extent of country than is in the hands of the grazier. This island has been long celebrated for plenty and excellence of butter, which is exported in large quantities. It is generally believed that the best butter is made in Carlow, whence it is sent to Dublin by means of the canal; and the worst, contrary to all rational expectation, is produced from the rich soil of Limerick and Meath.

Mr. Wakefield observes that " Butter of the first quality is exported to England, where it is either consumed, or shipped for the East and West Indies; the next sort is sent to Spain, and the third to Portugal, the inhabitants of which country prefer it in a rancid state, that is, when it has a strong smell and taste." Account of Ireland, &c.