Books of Sentences, and compiled from the writings of Gregory and Augustin, is scarcely worthy of mention, though in this century, it was considered as an admirable and immortal work."

Several particular branches of doctrine were treated by the theological writers of this age; thus Maximus wrote concerning the nature of theology and the manifestation of the Son in the flesh, and also concerning the two natures in Christ; and Theodore Raithu composed a treatise concerning Christ's incarnation. But a small acquaintance with the state of learning and religion at this period will enable us to form a just, though disadvantageous, idea of the merit of these performances, and also of their authors. IV. The moral writers of this century, and their mise

rable productions, show too plainly to what a Moral writers. wretched state that noble and important science was now reduced. Among these moralists, the first rank is due to Dorotheus, author of the Ascetic Dissertations; Maximus, Aldhelm, Hesychius, Thalassius, and some others; yet even in their productions, what grovelling notions do we find! what rubbish, what a heap of superstitious fancies, and how many marks of extravagance, perplexity, and doubt! beside, the laity had little reason to complain of the severity of their moral directors, whose custom it was to reduce all the obligations of Christianity to the practice of a small number of virtues, as appears from Aldhelm's Treatise concerning the eight principal virtues. Nor was the neglect of these duties attended with such penalties as were proper to restrain offenders. The false notions also, which prevailed in this age, tended much to diminish a just sense of the nature and obligation of virtue; for the solitude of the monastic life, though accompanied with no marks of solid and genuine piety, was deemed sufficient to atone for all sorts of crimes, and was therefore honoured among the Latins with the title of the second baptism, which circumstance alone may serve to show us the miserable state of Christianity at this time. The greatest part of the Grecian and oriental monks laboured to arrive at a state of perfection by mere contemplation, and studiously endeavoured to form their temper and characters after the model of Dionysius, the chief of the mystics.

b See Mabillon, Analecta reteris ævi, tom. ii. p. 68.

The renewal of penitential

v. Theodore of Tarsus, a Grecian monk, restored among the Latins the discipline of penance, as it is commonly termed, which had been for a long time almost totally neglected, and enforced it discipline. by a body of severe laws borrowed from the Grecian canons. This zealous prelate, being raised beyond his expectation to the see of Canterbury, A. D. 668, formed and executed several pious and laudable projects; and among other things reduced to a regular science that branch of ecclesiastical law which is known by the name of penitential discipline. He published a penitential, which was entirely new to the Latin world, by which the clergy were taught to distinguish sins into various classes, according as they were more or less heinous, private or public; to judge of them and determine the degrees of their guilt by their nature and consequences; the intention of the offender; the time and place in which they were committed; and the circumstances with which they were attended. This new penitential contained also the methods of proceeding with respect to offenders; pointed out the penalties that were suitable to the various classes of transgressions; prescribed the forms of consolation, exhortation, and absolution; and described, in an ample and accurate manner, the duties and obligations of those who were to receive the confessions of the penitent. This new discipline, though of Grecian origin, was eagerly adopted by the Latin churches; and, in a short space of time, passed from Britain into all the western provinces, where the book of Theodore became the model of all other penitentials, and was multiplied in a vast number of copies. The duration of this discipline was but transitory; for in the eighth century it began to decline, and was at length entirely supplanted by what was called the new canon of indulgences.

The state of

VI. The doctors who opposed the various sects are scarcely worthy of mention, and would deserve still less an attentive perusal, did not their wri- polemic tings contribute to illustrate the history of the logic the times in which they lived. Nicias composed two books

c The penitential of Theodore is yet extant, though maimed and imperfect, in an edition published at Paris in the year 1679, in 4to. by Petit; and enriched with learned dissertations and notes of the editor. We have also the cxx. Capitula Ecclesiast. Theodori, published in Dacaerius's Spicilegium, tom. ix. and in the Concilia Harduini, tom. iii. p.

d

against the Gentiles; and Photius informs us that a certain writer, whose name is unknown, embarked in the same controversy, and supported the good cause by a prodigious number of arguments, drawn from ancient records and monuments. Julius Pomerius exerted his polemic talent against the Jews. The views of Timotheus were yet more extensive; for he gave an ample description and a laboured confutation of all the various heresies that divided the church, in his book concerning the reception of heretics.

As to the dissensions of the catholic Christians among themselves, they produced, at this time, few or no events worthy of mention. We shall therefore only observe, that in this century were sown the seeds of those fatal discords, which rent asunder the bonds of Christian communion between the Greek and Latin churches; nay, these seeds had already taken root in the minds of the Greeks, to whom the Roman power became insupportable, and the pretensions of the sovereign pontiffs odious.

In Britain, warm controversies concerning baptism, the tonsure, and particularly the famous dispute concerning the time of celebrating the Easter festival, were carried on between the ancient Britons, and the new converts to Christianity, which Augustin had made among the Anglo-Saxons. The fundamental doctrines of Christianity were not at all affected by these controversies, which, on that account were more innocent and less important than they would have otherwise been. Beside, they were entirely terminated in the eighth century in favour of the Anglo-Saxons, by the Benedictine monks.'

d Biblioth. Cod. clxx. p. 379.

e Cummani Epistola in Jac. Usserii Sylloge Epistolar. Hibernicar. p. 23. Bedæ Historia Ecclesiast. gentis Anglor. lib. iii. cap. xxv. Wilkins's Concilia Magna Britann. tom. i. p. 37, 42. Acta Sanctor. Februar, tom. iii. p. 21, 84. See also Dr. Warner's Ecclesiastical History of England, books ii. and iii. This history, which has lately appeared, deserves the highest applause, on account of that noble spirit of liberty, candour, and moderation, that seems to have guided the pen of the judicious author. It were at the same time to be wished, that this elegant historian had less avoided citing authorities, and had been a little more lavish of that erudition which he is known to possess; for then, after having surpassed Collier in all other respects, he would have equalled him in that depth and learning, which are the only meritorious circumstances of his partial and disagreeable history.

f Mabillon, Præf. ad Sæc. iii. Benedictínum, p. 2. See also Dr. Warner's Eccle siast. Hist. book iii.

CHAPTER IV.

CONCERNING THE RITES AND CEREMONIES USED IN THE CHURCH During

THIS CENTURY.

Religious rites

I. IN the council of Constantinople, which was called Quinisextum," the Greeks enacted several laws concerning the ceremonies that were to be ob- multiplied. served in divine worship, which rendered their ritual, in some respects, different from that of the Romans. These laws were publicly received by all the churches which were established in the dominions of the Grecian emperors; and also by those which were joined with them in communion and doctrine, though under the civil jurisdiction of barbarian princes. Nor was this all; for every Roman pontiff added something new to the ancient rites and institutions, as if it was an essential mark of their zeal for religion, and of their pious discharge of the ministerial function, to divert the multitude with new shows and new spectacles of devout mummery. These superstitious inventions were, in the time of Charlemagne, propagated from Rome among the other Latin churches, whose subjection to the Roman ritual was necessary to satisfy the ambitious demands of the lordly pontiff.

Some exam

addition to

II. It will not be improper to select here a few out of the many instances we could produce of the multiplication of religious rites in this century. The ples of this number of festivals, under which the church al- the ritual ready groaned, was now augmented; a new festival was instituted in honour of the true cross on which Christ suffered, and another in commemoration of the Saviour's ascension into heaven. Boniface V. enacted that infamous law, by which the churches became places of refuge to all who fled thither for protection; a law which procured a sort of impunity to the most enormous crimes, and gave a loose rein to the licentiousness of the most abandoned profligates. Honorius employed all his diligence and zeal in embellishing churches, and other consecrated places, with the most pompous and magnificent ornaments; for as nei

g This council was called Quinisextum, from its being considered as a supplement to the fifth and sixth councils of Constantinople, in which nothing had been decreed concerning the morals of Christians, or religious ceremonies.

ther Christ nor his apostles had left any injunctions of this nature to their followers, their pretended vicar thought it but just to supply this defect by the most splendid display of his ostentatious beneficence. We shall pass in silence the riches and variety of the sacerdotal garments that were now used at the celebration of the eucharist, and in the performance of divine worship, as this would lead us into a tedious detail of minute and unimportant matters.

CHAPTER V.

CONCERNING THE DIVISIONS AND HERESIES THAT TROUBLED THE CHURCH DURING THIS CENTURY.

The remains

sects.

I. THE Greeks, were engaged, during this century, in the most bitter and virulent controversy with the of the ancient Paulicians, whom they considered as a branch of the Manichean sect, and who were settled in Armenia and the adjacent countries. This dispute was carried to the greatest height under the reigns of Constans, Constantine Pogonatus, and Justinian II. and the Greeks were not only armed with arguments, but were also seconded by the force of military legions, and the terror of penal laws. A certain person, whose name was Constantine, revived, under the reign of Constans, the drooping faction of the Paulicians, which was now ready to expire; and propagated with great success its pestilential doctrines. But this is not the place to enlarge upon the tenets and history of this sect, whose origin is attributed to Paul and John, two brothers, who revived and modified the doctrine of Manes. As it was in the ninth century that the Paulicians flourished most, and acquired strength sufficient to support the rigours of an open and cruel war with the Greeks, we shall reserve a more particular account of them for our history of that period.

Paulicians.

Arians.

II. In Italy, the Lombards preferred the opinions of the Arians to the doctrine which was established by the council of Nice. In Gaul and in England, the Pelagian and Semipelagian controversies con

Pelagians.

h Photius, lib. i. Contra Manich. p. 61. Petri Siculi Historia Manich. p. 41. Georg. us, Compend. Hist. p. 431, edit. Venet.