3. M. AD. FRANCK, Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques, 1875, "Hobbes,” p. 718. 4. K. FISCHER, Francis Bacon und seine Nachfolger, Leipzig, 1875, III. Band, II. Cap. 5. L. NOACK, Historisch-biographisches Handwörterbuch zur Geschichte der Philosophie, Leipzig, 1879, "Hobbes," p. 388. 6. G. H. LEWES, The Biographical History of Philosophy, New York, 1883, Vol. II., pp. 495–505. 7. J. E. ERDMANN, A History of Philosophy, edited by W. S. Hough, London and New York, 1890, Vol. I., pp. 706–721. 8. B. C. BURT, A History of Modern Philosophy, Chicago, 1892, Vol. I., pp. 77–87. 9. R. FALCKENBERG, History of Modern Philosophy, trans. by A. C. Armstrong, jr., New York, 1893, pp. 71-79. 10. W. WINDELBAND, A History of Philosophy, trans. by J. H. Tufts, New York and London, 1893, Pt. IV., chap. 2. 11. A. WEBER, History of Philosophy, trans. by F. Thilly, New York, 1896, pp. 300-5. V. The following works may be consulted with reference to the subject of the relation of Hobbes's Ethical and Political Philosophy to the political conditions of his time : 1. L. v. RANKE, History of England, Oxford, 1875, Vol. III., Bk. XI., chap. 1, also Bk. XV., chap. 12. 2. D. MASSON, The Life of John Milton: Narrated in connection with the Political, Ecclesiastical and Literary History of his Time, London, 1881-94. Consult the "Index Volume." 3. S. R. GARDINER, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, London and New York, 1894-97, Vol. I., chaps. 2 and 7, also Vol. II., chaps. 18 and 24. INTRODUCTION. I. Biographical Sketch. THOMAS HOBBES was born in Westport, England, April 5, 1588. In his metrical autobiography he refers to his birth as follows: Natus erat noster servator Homo-Deus annos Primo vere; dies et quintus inibat Aprilis: Illo vermiculus tempore nascor ego, In Malmesburia. He was the son of Rev. Thomas Hobbes, vicar of Charl ton and Westport. school at Westport. When four years of age he was sent to Four years later he went to Malmesbury School, and shortly afterward attended a private school in Westport. In 1602-3 he entered Magdalen Hall, Oxford, receiving his bachelor's degree Feb. 5, 1607-8. These five years spent at Oxford were years of great political and ecclesiastical strife, and undoubtedly had much to do in determining the future conduct of Thomas Hobbes. The curriculum was still dominated by scholastic influences and had very little attraction for him. In the year of his graduation he was engaged by William Cavendish, afterward Earl of Devonshire, as companion for his eldest son. In 1610 Hobbes went to the Continent with his young master. He was especially impressed during his travels by the great interest manifested in the study of physical science. Returning to England, the next eighteen years find him devoting himself to classical study. Availing himself of the advantages afforded by the library of the Earl of Devonshire, he made a careful study of the Greek poets and historians. The outcome of these studies was a translation of Thucydides, published in 1628; also a translation of Homer. His relation to distinguished men of letters constitutes another interesting feature of this period of his life. Through his master he became acquainted with Lord Bacon, who found in him a very congenial acquaintance. He also associated with Edward Herbert, later Baron of Cherbury, founder of the deistic movement in England; also with Ben Jonson and Sir Robert Ayton. In 1628 his companion and master, the young earl, died. This caused a decided change in the affairs of Hobbes. After remaining several months with the family of his late master, in 1629 he accepted an invitation to go to the Continent as traveling tutor to Sir Gervase Clifford's son. During this visit abroad Hobbes was for the first time brought into contact with Euclid's Elements. This fact is of great interest when we remember the prevalence of the mathematical method involved in the philosophy of nature of the time and the influence of this method on Hobbes's later philosophical thinking. He also at this time became more or less interested in the subject of motion, which was receiving much attention in scientific circles. In 1631, while studying in Paris, he accepted an invitation to become tutor to the young son of his late master, the Earl of Devonshire. In 1634, in company with the young earl, he made his third visit to the Continent. They traveled through France and Italy, finally returning to France. Hobbes took up his abode in Paris, where he remained eight months. This third visit was one of exceptional interest to him. In Italy he became intimately acquainted with the renowned Galileo. There also he met Beregardus. In such company his interest in physical science was greatly quickened and his knowledge of recent scientific discoveries and investigations greatly enlarged. After returning to Paris, through the kind offices of Père Marsenne, he was admitted to a circle of scientific men. To fully appreciate the effect of association with these men of science on Hobbes's future thinking, we must take into consideration the nature of the new philosophy which was being promulgated at that time. Galileo had discovered the laws of motion and had announced all physical phenomena to be explainable on the basis of moving matter and its laws. This explanation had been quite generally accepted by scientific men. It resulted in the mechanical conception of nature which not only dominated the physical science of the time but also greatly influenced the philosophy of nature of the leading continental philosophers of the seventeenth century. This view of nature greatly interested Hobbes, and it was not long before, in his own mind, he was applying the principles of the mechanical philosophy to other phenomena than those of nature. He soon beheld all phenomena, physical, mental, and social, comprehended in one general system and explainable on the basis of motion and its laws. As Falckenberg says with reference to Hobbes's philosophy: "Mechanism applied to the world gives materialism; applied to knowledge, sensationalism of a mathematical type; applied to the will, determinism; to morality and the state, ethical and political naturalism."1 In 1637 he returned to England. He found his native country becoming more and more involved in political and ecclesiastical strife. The estrangement between the king and Parliament was becoming more decided; the controver 1 History of Modern Philosophy, trans., p. 72. sies concerning the relations between civil and spiritual power were becoming more intense. In 1640 he wrote a little treatise," expressing his political views. In it he attempted to vindicate the supremacy of the royal prerogative. The "little treatise" was circulated rather freely in manuscript form, and, according to Hobbes's own opinion, he incurred the hostility of the leaders of Parliament by it. He continued to ventilate his political views, and, feeling himself in danger, he fled to Paris, where, rejoining the scientific circle, he remained eleven years. In 1641 he wrote the De Cive in Latin, a work treating of the origin, nature, and power of civil government. In this work the absoluteness of sovereignty is advocated. Only a small number of copies was printed in 1642. The next three years were spent largely in scientific study. In 1647 a new edition of the De Cive was published in Amsterdam, bearing the title Elementa Philosophica de Cive, the date of dedication being 1641-46. The Preface to this edition indicates the circumstances which impelled not only its publication but doubtless also the publication of the previous edition. He says, in the "Preface to the Reader " of the Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society, which is an English translation of the De Cive: "I was studying Philosophy for my mind sake, and I had gathered together its first elements in all kinds; and having digested them into three sections by degrees, I thought to have written them, so as in the first I would have treated of Body and its general properties; in the second, of Man and his special faculties and affections; in the third, of Civil Government and the duties of subjects. Wherefore the first section would have contained the First Philosophy, and certain elements of Physic; in it we would have considered the reasons of Time, Place, Cause, Power, Relation, Proportion, Quantity, Figure, and Motion. In the second we |