and decay had everywhere become visible. Abroad, instead of the swift successes that were wont to attend the Turkish arms, there was exhibited the spectacle of persistent negligence and slothfulness, of frequent repulses, of an uncertain future, such as was viewed with an acquiescent timidity. At home all was in confusion, the governmental institutions, which had been reckoned the very types of wisdom and stability, having been shaken in a manner from which they have not recovered. Much of the blame must be charged to the feeble intellect and depraved morals of the sovereign. Mohammed never fulfilled the promise of his early youth. From the day of his accession, he gave himself up to a consuming indolence, relieved only by periods of excessive self-indulgence. Not above once or twice in his inglorious career did any fitful spark of that true fire with which he had been credited flash out. "He was," says his biographer, "altogether given to sensuality and voluptuous pleasure, the marks whereof he carried about him in a foul, unwieldy, and overgrown body, unfit for any princely office or function, and a mind thereto answerable; wholly given over unto idleness, pleasure, and excess-no small means for the shortening of his days, which he ended in obloquy, unregarded of his subjects, and but by few or none of them lamented." He died in the end of January, 1604.

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CHAPTER VII.

THE REIGN OF AHMED I.-WARS IN PERSIA AND HUNGARY-THE MAD MUSTAPHA —ACCESSION OF OTHMAN I.—HIS MURDER—AMURATH IV.—HIS Wars in the AND DEATH — HIS

EAST-FRIGHTFUL

FOOLISH SUCCESSOR.

CRUELTIES-HIS

INTEMPERANCE

HMED I. was only fifteen years of age when he was raised to the throne. He refused to stain his accession by the guilt of fratricide, though he banished both the ladies and the eunuchs of his father's harem. By the advice of the great officers of state he gave largesses of unexampled amount to the army. It is said the immense sum of two and a half millions was thus distributed. The effect was to create a factitious enthusiasm on his behalf, which was augmented by the magnificence of the ceremonies that attended his coronation, and by the proclamation of a discovery (whether feigned or veritable is uncertain) that he bore a striking resemblance to Mohammed the Great, the conqueror of Constantinople. Popular favour was thus conciliated, and hopes began to be entertained that something would be done to check the visible decline of the empire. Expectation pointed to the reduction of Malta; but the troubles in Persia and in Austria precluded any idea of such an enterprise. Just before Mohammed's death an effort had been made to arrange an accommodation of the Hungarian quarrel. The details of a treaty were agreed upon, and in celebration of the event a grand entertainment was given by the inhabitants of Pesth to the Turks of Buda. But the bargain was never ratified-the Turks having at the last moment slipped out of their engagements. This faithlessness might well have disinclined the Austrians from a speedy renewal of negotiations; but the truth was both Powers had little capacity or inclination for a continuance of the protracted struggle. Accordingly soon after Ahmed's accession the peace of Litvatorok was concluded. This treaty is remarkable as being the first in which the Ottoman representatives accepted the formalities of European diplomacy. By it their pretensions to supremacy were abandoned, and the claim of tribute from Hungary was relinquished. Other two notable treaties signalise his reignthe first a renewal and enlargement of the compact with France, by which certain facilities were given for approaching the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem; the second, a commercial treaty granting to Holland, which already took high rank among the maritime states of Europe, all the privileges belonging to the most favoured nation. From this latter arrangement the benefits derived by Turkey were at least equal to those she conferred.

These pacific arrangements were rendered virtually indispensable by reason of the commotions that still distracted the empire, particularly in the East. It is true that those

P

followers of "the Black Scribe" who had not been conciliated were either crushed or dispersed; but of the latter there were a considerable number who took refuge with the Shah of Persia, Abbas the Great. Their arrival fitted in with his views, and emboldened him to an enterprise he had long thought of. He had defeated the Turcomans; he had become possessor of Georgia; and he now sought to re-annex the territories which had been wrested from his predecessors by the Ottomans. Cicala, son of the hero of Agria, was appointed to the command of the Turkish forces. He set out at the head of a large army which had been excited to a high pitch of fanatical enthusiasm. The Ulema issued a declaration that the death of one Persian was of more importance in the sight of God than that of sixty Christians. This statement was deeply resented by the Shah, who put to death by torture every member of the body making it who came into his hands. He was not addicted otherwise to violent or sanguinary deeds; on the contrary, his prudence and magnanimity vied with his courage and military skill. Both sets of qualities were strikingly displayed in the course of the war. It went entirely in his favour, Cicala having been defeated thrice with heavy loss in the course of a month, and being at last obliged to seek safety in flight, leaving behind his camp equipage, his artillery, and some thirty thousand of his troops. Irak and Bagdad again came into the occupation of Persia, and it seemed as if the Shah might dictate a very humiliating peace. But his good sense and high-minded self-control induced him to abstain. He it was who opened negotiations for a settlement. The terms he proposed were extremely favourable to the Sultan. The manner in which they were urged corresponded with their substance, and ought to have secured a welcome reception. But Ahmed and his advisers were beside themselves with rage and mortified pride. They spurned the proffers submitted, and directed all their energies to the collection of men and means for carrying on the war. So determined and desperate were they that arrangements were made, under religious sanction, for the sale of the mosques in order to meet expenses. They were saved from the consequences of this madness by a meeting on the part of the soldiers, who, when made aware of their purposed destination, positively refused to be led against an adversary who had proved at once so formidable and so fortunate. Though acquainted with the straits to which the Sultan was thus reduced, Abbas neither resiled from his desire for peace, nor took avail of the position to exact higher terms. His behaviour was very different, for he voluntarily made further concessions, offering to designate the provinces he wished restored the Pashalik of Taurus, to allow a Cadi from Constantinople to dispense justice, and to pay an annual tribute of silk. These proposals he recommended by sending along with them splendid presents. His diplomacy was now successful; and thus he seemed to have ended a strife which had become chronic, that had been waged with great violence at frequently recurring intervals during more than a century and a half, and had desolated some of the fairest and most fertile regions on the face of the earth.

The remaining ten years of Ahmed's life presented a great variety of incidents, but to only one of them can there be ascribed much of interest or importance. This was a struggle into which he entered with the Syrian Druses, headed by Faker-el-din. The sect had its origin in the beginning of the eleventh century. The founder was a watercarrier of Cairo, who asserted his descent from the Ommiade Caliphs. He was cruelly put to death in the town where he lived, being led through the streets mounted on a

MUSTAPHA THE FOOL.

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camel, while an ape, trained for the purpose, battered him on the head with a stone till he expired. His death failed to extinguish his influence. Instead, as so often happens, the persecution to which his disciples were subjected went to increase their numbers. Many converts were made in Syria, and the sect established their headquarters in the fastnesses of the Lebanon. The peculiarity of their religion was, as it continues to be, that while believing the Koran they repudiate the Prophet-a distinction which entails many minor differences betwixt them and the Mohammedans proper. Naturally enough there was no love lost between them, the detestation of the Mohammedans being such that they would gladly have extirpated the whole race who had exhibited such a daring example of nonconformity. The dispute led to a fresh embroilment with Shah Abbas, who entered the arena with his wonted prowess and fortune. The Pasha of Damascus sought to bar his approach by interposing a much superior force, but was utterly discomfited, and the victor removed his court to Bagdad, there to make preparations for carrying forward hostilities. Ahmed was moved personally to encounter this redoubtable opponent; but his habits unfitted him for such an enterprise, and he died ere his resolution could take shape. He was a weak sovereign. Under him the decline of the empire proceeded apace; throughout his reign the provinces were in wellnigh perpetual disorder; in his later years the Mohammedan flag had almost disappeared from the seas; and at his death the Imperial treasury was in an exhausted condition. His last illness was sudden; yet, when he felt death approaching, he sent for his brother Mustapha,-whom he had twice devoted to destruction, but was moved to spare through an idea that he was destined by Providence for some great work,-spoke to him of the youth of his eldest son as unfitting him for rule, recommended all his children to his care, and besought him to assume the government.

Never was a more egregious blunder committed. Mustapha had of course been bred up a recluse. But he had acquired a reputation for having devoted himself to Arabic scholarship. Upon the faith of this he seems to have been credited with the possession of a sound judgment. In the result it befell either that his devotion to a curious branch of inquiry indicated a decided weakness of brain, or that his sudden elevation turned his head at any rate his utter and hopeless imbecility was soon made apparent. He behaved in the wildest manner. The most trivial performance of a servitor who happened to take his eye was rewarded in the most extravagant fashion. An infant slave might suddenly be made a Pasha. His displeasure was as capricious as his favour; and it was often exhibited in a manner at least as arbitrary. One notable instance is that of the French Ambassador. This man, though invested with all the pomp of diplomatic state, attended by a splendid retinue of servants, and prosecuting his business with apparent success, was seized, thrown into prison, and made the subject of charges as unfounded in their character as formidable in their magnitude, while his servants were handed over to torture, and were only liberated on payment of a heavy fine. So outrageous did the proofs of imbecility grow that at last no resource appeared open to the Ulema and the Mufti but that of his deposition. This they managed, without at the same time binding themselves to his death. His palpable insanity was his protection. Like the ancient Scots, the Turks have a superstitious regard for idiots, believing that harm will alight upon those who harm them. After an inglorious elevation of less than five months Mustapha was quietly superseded.

He was succeeded by his nephew Othman III., the son of his predecessor. Possibly the lad had heard something of how the course of events had lately gone. At all events, though yet a stripling, he came to the throne with such ideas as he could hardly have possessed when his father died. Young and ardent, he also showed himself informed, farsighted, and ambitious. With a boyish pride he spoke of emulating the character and achievements of his ancestor Suleiman. With this view he set about making himself popular, but also making himself feared. He was accustomed to mingle freely with his people in athletic games (where, of course, he oftenest came off the victor), as also to go in disguise through the coffee-houses, bazaars, and market-places. In the latter case, whereever he found, or thought he found, any violation of the law, the offence was punished with the utmost severity. This was a bad education for a young man. His good qualities were spoiled. Whatever he might have been, he became an exceedingly capricious and exacting task-master; and erelong everybody fretted under his minute, comprehensive, and arbitrary administration. Had he been content to leave it to his chief officers he might have left a great name in the Ottoman annals. As it was, he so provoked and enraged all about him, that the reign of the feeble Mustapha was regretted, a conspiracy was formed for his deposition, and his deposition was the mere prelude to his death. He was the first Sultan whose life was taken by his subjects. At the time of his murder he was only eighteen.

His reign began with a great show of vigour. Of course it took the direction of aggressive war. His first campaign was directed against Poland; and a very formidable business it threatened to be. A strong Turkish army was sent across the Pruth. The battle which ensued revived for the time the old alarms of Christendom, for the Poles were not merely defeated, they were almost annihilated. But the triumph was not well followed up. The Sultan wished to be present at the next great encounter, and preparations were delayed for his convenience. When he came it was too late. Quarrels had broken out in his own army; his allies had been alienated; his opponents had fortified themselves. Seven times they were assailed in the camp they had formed, and seven times the assailants were repulsed with an enormous loss on each occasion. At last peace was renewed upon terms wholly favourable to the Poles. Thereupon discontent broke out among the Turks. The soldiers blamed the Sultan. The Sultan blamed the Janissaries. By way of diverting the regards of his people, while emphasising his distrust of the Janissaries, an expedition against the Druses was planned; and from all share in it the Janissaries were excluded. It was a bold policy, but one wholly mistaken. This privileged body was far too strong to be thus evasively dealt with. They rose in fury against the insult put upon them; and the practical question having been asked what were they to do, some unknown voice gave answer, "Make Mustapha Sultan." The advice was received as an oracle. Search was at once made for the poor idiot, with a view to his elevation. He was found with difficulty in a dark dungeon, where during the excitement of the time he had been kept for over two days without food. When he was brought forth he had sense enough meekly to present his neck for the bowstring, thinking his days were numbered. It was difficult to undeceive him. After Othman had been hunted up, in the house of the Aga of the Janissaries, a man he had recklessly denounced, and was brought before his uncle as a prisoner, that poor imbecile evidently comprehended nothing of what was going forward.