liant future, provided it could keep pace with the advancing culture of the West, could develop its intellectual powers and increase its material wealth.

In the course of this new movement literature also developed an unexpected vitality. Such poets as Franz Kölesey (1790-1838), Franz Kazinczy (1759-1831), Michael of Esokonai (1773-1805), Alexander and Karl Kisfaludy (Vol. VIII), and Mich. Vörösmarty were the forerunners of Al. Petöfi, M. Jókai, Baron Jos. Eötvös, Em. Madách, János Arany, Paul Gyulai (born 1827), Karl Száss (born 1829), and Johann Vajda (born 1827). The revival of the national spirit caused especial attention to be paid to Magyar philology. This study was continued by later scholars, such as Gabriel Szarvas, Paul Hunfalvy (1810-1891), Jos. Budenz (1836-1892), and Bernhard Munkácsi; of these the two latter have published works invaluable to the study of the philology of the Ugrian languages.

The reform movement of Széchényi soon met with opposition in government circles, where every attempt at progress was zealously crushed. The tension between the nation and the court of Vienna grew ever more strained. Széchényi supported the government upon certain occasions, but was too conservative a personality for the multitude; he gradually lost the public favour, which turned to Ludwig Kossuth (1802–1894), whose persuasive eloquence and diligent authorship, the fruits of which saw the light in his widely spread "Landtagszeitung," made him a leader of the strongest of the opposition party. When Ferdinand V (1835-1848) came to the throne the movement had gone so far that Széchényi was forced to resign the leadership to Kossuth. The March rebellion of the year 1848 in Vienna and Pesth (Vol. VIII) made Kossuth and his adherents masters of the situation at one blow. The diet forthwith promulgated a series of decrees which overthrew the ancient aristocracy, introduced parliamentary government and a responsible ministry, united Transylvania with Hungary, abolished serfdom, and proclaimed the freedom of the press and the equality of the recognized religions. On the 23d of March the king appointed Count Louis Batthyány as president of the ministry; in conjunction with Kossuth, Francis of Deák, who was long conspicuous for his political wisdom, Széchényi, Eötvös and Paul Anton, Prince Esterházy of Galántha, made Hungary a constitutional state.

This national movement towards freedom was very speedily checked by disturbances among the Hungarian nationalities (cf. pp. 310 and 313). Croatians, Serbs, and Wallachians flew to arms, partly at the instigation of Vienna, where the court began to regret the concessions which had been made to the Magyars. The relations between the court of Vienna and the Hungarian government, which was now entirely under the influence of Kossuth (Vol. VIII), became strained as a result of these questions of nationality, the more so as the Hungarian ministry proceeded to crush the revolt of the frontier nations by force of arms. The Austrian army occupied Ofen; the government and the diet then fled to Debreczin, which now became a centre of the national movement. The smaller nationalities were quickly crushed by Görgey, Klapka, John Damjanich, and Bem; they drove out the Austrian armies, who were left by the middle of April, 1849, in possession only of Ofen, Arad, and Temesvár. On the 14th of April the diet proclaimed the deposition of the house of Hapsburg.

Austria was helpless to deal with the conditions which she had herself created, and applied to Russia for help. The united troops of the two powers subdued Hungary within a few months. Kossuth and many of his adherents fled into

foreign countries, and Görgey laid down his arms on August 13, 1849, at Világos. The Austrian field-marshal, J. J. von Haynau, a son of the Elector William I of Hesse and of Rosa Ritter, now began the bloody work of revenge. Thirteen Hungarian generals were executed at Arad on October 6; on the same day, at Pest, Bátthyány only escaped the disgrace of the gallows by committing suicide. The prisons were overflowing with captives, the members of the Hungarian army (the Honvéd) were incorporated in the Austrian army. The Viennese government ruled the country at its will and pleasure, and Hungary became little more than a crown land of the empire.

It was not until the shock of the Italian war of 1859 that this despotism became less rigid. Under the influence of the Prussian war of 1866, the negotiations for a compromise took a favourable turn owing to the politic behaviour of the diplomatist Deák. The final result was the dual system (February 18, 1867), which was created by restoring the constitution of the spring of 1848. The weary struggle was brought to a close by the legislation carried out in 1867 and 1868. King Francis Joseph I, together with his consort Queen Elizabeth, was crowned in Buda Pest on June 8, 1867, by which act the reconciliation was finally sealed, to the benefit and the honour of the joint monarchy.

Under the government of Francis Joseph the country has made considerable progress (cf. Vol. VIII), but at the outset of 1905, the compromise of 1867, the apparently immortal creation of Francis Deák, was shaken to its foundations by the last elections, at which for the first time the predominance of the liberal party was broken down in a surprising manner. This unexpected victory of the independent party obliged the aged emperor and king to receive in the Hofburg at Vienna, on February 12, 1905, Francis Kossuth, the son of the inexorable revolutionary of 1848 and 1849.

E. THE GERMANS IN HUNGARY

AFTER the overthrow of the rule of the Avars, the frontiers of the great Frankish kingdom were occupied by German colonists; Frankish and Bavarian nobles obtained extensive possessions, especially in the mountainous country which borders the frontiers of Styria, and even then bore some traces of Roman civilization. When the Hungarians occupied the country at the end of the ninth century, they left the German settlements for the most part undisturbed, but prevented their increase, with the result that they were easily overthrown during the continual wars of the period. Many of the fortified frontier strongholds may have been overthrown in the course of the Magyar attacks; at the same time these German settlements did not disappear entirely. In the repeated defeats which the Hungarians suffered in the course of their marauding expeditions they were threatened with the danger of suffering the fate of their predecessors; and it was Christianity, preached to them primarily by German priests, and their adhesion to such Christian powers as Germany, which made their future safe.

These friendly relations with Germany received a strong guarantee of support in 995 by the marriage of Stephan (Wajks) with Gisela, the daughter of the Bavarian duke, Henry II (above, p. 379), for the reason that this lady brought with her many clergy and nobles (Wezelin, Hermann, and others) and their

squires, who helped to bring about the rapid extension of Christianity and culture. The immigration of German knights, monks, and other people became more rapid after the husband of Gisela had ascended the throne of Hungary; however, among the German colonies proper we have certain information concerning only one as originating from that early period, that is, Deutsch-Szatmár on the Szamos, which was founded by Gisela herself. The apostle-king organised his court upon German models, and throughout his reign displayed a consistent tendency to favour the noble immigrants. In his advice to his son Emerich, who died prematurely, he wrote that the introduction of foreigners was to be regarded as a necessary means to the support of the throne and to the increase of the imperial power; "treat these guests well and hold them in honour." Upon the whole, this was the attitude adopted by his successors of the Árpád family (for the period between 1074 and 1114 we have no account of further immigrations); the chief favourite of King Salomon was the Veit (Vid) of Suabia or Neissen, who bore the unintelligible surname of Guth-Keled. However, it should not be forgotten that all the real agricultural work of ploughing and sowing was originally carried on by Slavonic serfs. Some remnant of the old Slav nobility (a case in point is that of the Counts of Osl, who flourished in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries) may have survived the Magyar conquest and have been eventually absorbed by the Hungarians. It is certain that, together with these, representatives of the Romance nationalities also found a welcome in Hungary under Peter the Venetian (p. 380) and then under the Angevins.

(a) West Hungary. The counties of Eisenburg and Ödenburg on the slopes of the Leitha mountain range, at the base of which lies the Lake of Neusiedler, and also the valleys formed by the spurs of the Eastern Alps of Styria and Austria, are inhabited by the German people of the Hienzes, also known as Heanzes, Henzes, or Heinzes. Upon an area of some 400 square miles are to be found 30,000 Slavs ("water Croatians "), 10,000 Jews, about 5,000 Magyars, and about 300,000 Germans, who belong for the most part to the Catholic Church. The name Hienz or Heanz points to their German origin, for their neighbours would not have given this little people any name of German form. Probably the name is derived from Heinz, Henz, or Aenz (Heinrich or Henry), and consequently has the meaning "Henry's people." The emperor Henry III indeed undertook repeated expeditions to Hungary (cf. p. 380), and occupied the west for some time. Another tradition tells of a castle owner named Henzo, after whom the whole district was known as Henzonia; under Ladislaus IV (1272-1290) there was indeed a royal chamberlain named Hencz. It is, however, possible that this little people may have inherited their name from Count Henry of Güssing (Kuscyn, Kussen, Kyssin; 1228 to the end of 1274); he founded one of the most powerful families, was for a time palatine of the empire, and is often mentioned in the frontier wars against Styria and the Austrians. He founded numerous fortresses in these districts, including the castle of Ternstein and the town of Güns. His sons, Ivan (John), Peter, Nicholas, and Henry, all occupied high positions, and are named in the documents "Henry's sons"; they all worked to secure the prestige of their family. Almost all the fortresses on the western frontier were in their possession. The garrisons of these fortresses were exclusively German, recruited for the most part from the surrounding inhabitants, and may therefore have taken

the name Hienzes or Haenzes, or have received it from their master. It must be said that, according to J. W. Nagl, the name simply means "poultry-merchant."

The remnants of that Bavarian settlement founded here by Charles the Great to oppose the Avars (though we need not assume that the colonial activity of Charles extended beyond the east frontier into Pannonian territory) developed into flourishing Bavarian communities under the Frankish margraves; like these, the settlements of the Hienzes suffered no doubt considerable damage by the occupation of the country by the Hungarians, but soon received important reinforcements in the numerous German prisoners brought by the Hungarians from German countries in the course of their raids. This German group of communities was especially strengthened in the first place by the neighbourhood of Austria and Styria, and further by the incorporation of German nobles, such as the Counts of Güssing and their near relatives the lords of Hedervár (Hedrichsburg), the Counts of St. Georgen and Bösing, the Staufen or Meissen Count Guth-Keled, the knight of Lindan (Lendva), from one branch of whose family proceeded that of Bánffy (sons of the Banus), the nobles of Buzad, the Count of Mattersdorf (i. e. Gross-Martinsdorf), and especially the Counts of Cilli, who were powerful between 1341 and 1356 (cf. above, p. 385). The wooded frontier district, which even at the time of the emperor Henry III was so inhospitable that he was only able to penetrate into Hungary by following the long windings of the Raab, was transformed by the industry, the native vigour, the common sense, and the God-fearing work of the Hienzes into a rich agricultural, timber-growing, and vine-bearing district; here these people clung tenaciously in the midst of their progress to the manners and customs of their forefathers, and preserved their nationality amongst a FinnoUgrian population.

Political circumstances were almost invariably favourable to the progress of the Germans, notwithstanding the many disturbances which constantly burst over the West. In 1440, when Eisenstadt was mortgaged by Queen Elizabeth to the Austrian duke Albrecht, the German nationality received a strong reinforcement. With the consent of the Hungarian nobility King Matthias Corvinus ceded to the emperor Frederick III Forchtenstein (or Fraknó, formerly a castle of Mattersdorf under a count), Güns, Kobersdorf, Rechnitz, Bernstein, and Hornstein, with their surrounding districts. Eisenstadt and Forchtenstein were incorporated with Hungary in 1622, when the emperor Ferdinand II mortgaged these towns at a high rate to Count Nicholas of Esterházy (palatine in 1625, died 1645); it was here that Joseph Haydn lived from 1761 to 1769 (cf. Vol. VIII). The towns and villages of the Hienzes enjoyed especial privileges. In 1328 King Charles Robert confirmed all the old privileges of the town of Güns, which were also recognised by King Louis I, Sigismund, Ferdinand I, and the following Hapsburgs. In 1373 Eisenstadt received a charter written in German from the bishop of Agram, Stephan of Kaniza; this was confirmed in 1447 by Duke Albrecht VI of Austria. Ödenburg, the capital of the Hienzes, built upon the ruins of the Roman town Scarabanta, received a charter in 1260; its terms were considerably extended by Ladislaus III to the "German citizens and strangers" dwelling there, in consequence of their special services in the war against the Bohemian king Ottokar. Andreas III, and almost all later rulers, down to Leopold I and Joseph I, equally confirmed the privileges of this town, within the walls of which four diets were held and two queens were crowned.

The neighbours of the Hienzes are the "Heidebauern" (heath-peasants), who lived upon the "heath" on the shores of the Lake of Neusiedel, on the Schütt and near Pressburg. This people is of Suabian origin; they migrated from the district on the Bodensee to Hungary during the Reformation, to escape the persecution of the neighbouring Austrian nobles, and were protected by Maria, the consort of Lewis II, about 1626. When, however, the Counter Reformation in Hungary prepared to suppress Protestantism by more vigorous measures after 1640, some of the heath-peasants returned to the bosom of the Catholic Church. The two chief settlements of the heath-peasants, the towns of Wieselburg (properly Moosburg, in Latin Musunium, and in Magyar Mosony) and Altenburg, belonged for a time to Austria. Wieselburg was under the German imperial government from 1063 to 1074, and Germans were received among the noble vassals (Tobagiones castri; cf. the explanation to the plate facing page 384, paragraph 19). The religious house of Freising, connected with Wieselburg, received a gift of property from the emperor Henry III as early as the year 1053. When Anna, a sister of King Lewis II, married the Hapsburg Ferdinand I, she received Altenburg as a dowry.

The neighbourhood of the Austrian territories brought with it the consequence that the settlements of the Hienzes and of the heath-peasants took but little share in the internal disturbances or the foreign wars of the Hungarian kingdom; for that reason they were able to preserve their German nationality. The heathpeasant has indeed been named the representative of the cosmopolitan spirit among the West Hungarian Germans; he accommodates himself most easily to circumstances, adapts himself to the neighbouring Magyars and Slavs and adopts their language, with the result that his own German dialect often becomes unrecognisable. In other respects the manners and customs of the heath-peasant and the Hienzes do not diverge, but plainly bear signs of pure Germanic origin. Their discipline, their sense of honour, and their deep religious feeling mark the serious character of these peoples, notwithstanding their apparent carelessness and easiness of life.

After the expulsion of the Turks, the ecclesiastical and secular nobles attempted, by bringing in German colonists, to restore the depopulated and devastated districts in the neighbourhood of the capital, on the heights of the Vértesgebirge and of the Bakonyer Wald, on the Central Danube and in the corner between the Danube and the Drave. At the end of the seventeenth century the archbishops of Gran settled Suabians and Franks upon their property. In 1690 in the comitate of Pesth, Suabian immigrants founded the town of Izsaszeg, and six years later restored the ruins of Duna-Haraszti. The Duke Charles of Lorraine and Prince Eugene also settled Germans on their property at Ofen; their example was followed by the Counts Zichy, Ráday, and Grassalkovich. In the year 1718 Germans from the Rhine districts were settled on the property of the lords in the comitates of Tolna and Baranya. The Austrian fieldmarshals, who had been rewarded with extensive lands in Hungary after the expulsion of the Turks, attempted to attract German colonists thither. In the majority of such settlements the German nationality has survived to the present day, though weakened in many respects. These German settlements never played an independent part in the political history of Hungary.