the other hand it prevented specialisation and repressed originality. Not until 1727 was the professorial system completely established in Glasgow, Carmichael being appointed Professor of Moral Philosophy. In his acceptance of the Newtonian physics, in his acquaintance with contemporary as well as classical and scholastic philosophy, and in the character of his own thought, he marked a period of transition. His Introduction to Logic adopts the broad view of that study taken by the Logic of Port Royal. For his edition of Puffendorf's De Officio Hominis et Civis, he was praised by Hutcheson as "by far the best commentator on that book." In more departments than one he sought to base his inferences on an analysis of the facts and principles of human nature, and is thus regarded by Hamilton as "the real founder of the Scottish school of philosophy."

Hutcheson hailed with joy his release from the drudgery of a school, and in October, 1730, entered with enthusiasm on his new duties. His reputation had gone before him, and students from England and Ireland were attracted to his classes. At first, following the custom which had prevailed, he lectured in Latin, but he soon abandoned this practice and spoke in the vulgar tongue. He was a good-looking man, of an engaging countenance," writes Dr. Alexander Carlyle, who attended his lectures as a student. delivered his lectures without notes, walking backwards and forwards in the area of his room. As his elocution was good and his voice and manner pleasing, he retained the attention of his hearers at all times; and when the subject led him to explain and enforce

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the moral virtues and duties, he displayed a fervent and persuasive eloquence which was irresistible." The theoretical teaching of moral philosophy was subordinated to his desire to arouse an enthusiasm for virtue; and the tradition of his eloquence and of the impression which he made on his hearers lingered in Scotland at a time when his writings were neglected. Besides lecturing during the week on Ethics, Natural Theology, Jurisprudence, and the theory of Government, and reading classical works on ethics with his students, he lectured publicly on Sunday evenings on the truth and excellence of Christianity, taking his views, as his biographer tells us, "from the original records of the New Testament, and not from the partytenets or scholastic systems of modern ages." This, however, did not satisfy the zealots, and he was charged with teaching the false and dangerous doctrines, first, that the standard of moral goodness is the promotion of the happiness of others, and second, that we can have a knowledge of good and evil without and prior to a knowledge of God. These accusations added to his popularity among the students. Averse as Hutcheson was to heated theological discussions, the whole trend of his being was in favour of free inquiry and civil and religious liberty; and in the hope of promoting more moderate and charitable sentiments in religious matters," he cordially supported the appointment of his friend Dr. Leechman-whose appearance is described by Carlyle as "that of an ascetic, worn by prayer and fasting"-to the chair of theology. His avowed aim was, as he expressed it, to put "a new face upon theology in Scotland." Hutche

son was happy in the affection of his colleagues and of his students. In 1745 he declined the offer of the chair of Moral Philosophy in Edinburgh, and in the following year, after a short illness, a useful and busy life came to an end. His personal presence has been described by Dr. Leechman: "A stature above middle size, a gesture and manner negligent and easy, but decent and manly, gave a dignity to his appearance. His complexion was fair and sanguine, and his features. regular. His countenance and look bespoke sense, spirit, kindness, and joy of heart.”

Besides the works already mentioned, Hutcheson's principal writings included An Introduction to Moral Philosophy, published in Latin in 1742, and translated in 1747; Synopsis Metaphysicae Ontologiam et Pneumatologiam Complectens, which appeared in 1742; and A System of Moral Philosophy, published after his death by his only surviving son.1

In the title-page of the first edition of the Inquiry, Hutcheson professes to explain and defend the principles of the Earl of Shaftesbury, and to establish the ideas of moral good and evil according to the sentiments of the ancient moralists. Hutcheson's obligations to Shaftesbury were great indeed. Like Shaftesbury, Hutcheson combined reflections on beauty and on morality; like him, he believed that the beautiful and

1 Leechman's Life of Hutcheson was published as a preface to the System of Moral Philosophy. The fullest and most recent account of the philosopher's life and character is to be found in Dr. W. R. Scott's Francis Hutcheson; his life, teaching, and position in the history of Philosophy; University Press, Cambridge, 1900. The successive phases of Hutcheson's thought, as shown in his works, have been subjected by Dr. Scott to a careful scrutiny.

the good are immediately approved by inner sense; like him also, he found the criterion of morality in benevolence, and endeavoured to show that the end of social good was in harmony with individual pleasure. But he was by no means a blind imitator of Shaftesbury. From the first, he was indebted to the older thinkers, from whom Shaftesbury had also drawn; there are differences even in his initial treatment, and his later thought exhibits the marks of other influences.

The Inquiry is divided into two treatises, the first concerning Beauty, Order, etc.," the second "concerning Moral Good and Evil." In his preface and introductory remarks, Hutcheson is frankly hedonistic. He asks how men are to be made happy, and which are the greatest and most lasting pleasures, and thinks it of the first importance to prove that virtue will ensure the happiness of the agent. The perception of material objects through external sense may cause pleasure or pain; but there are other objects which necessarily please or displease us. Thus pleasure arises from the perception of the beauty of regularity, order, or harmony, and from the contemplation of virtuous affections, actions, or characters. Hutcheson would therefore expand the meaning of sense. The capacity to be pleased with beautiful forms or ideas. he calls an Internal Sense; and the capacity to be pleased with virtue he calls the Moral Sense. Reasoning as to the advantage or disadvantage of actions is unnecessary. As the mind is immediately and passively aware of sensations of vision or of hearing, so it is struck at once by the presence of beauty or of virtue; and its power of receiving these

ideas, and of deriving from them an immediate pleasure, is in each case an ultimate principle of our nature. In his Essay on the Passions, Hutcheson admits into his catalogue other internal senses; and in his System of Moral Philosophy he mentions a sense of sympathy, a sense of honour, and a sense of dignity and decency, as distinct from moral approbation.

Hutcheson has the distinction of being one of the earliest modern writers on the subject of the Beautiful. Beauty, in his wide use of the word, is to be discerned not only in nature and in art, but also in theorems or universal truths, in general causes, and in principles of action. It is relative to the mind which perceives it; were there no mind with a sense of beauty to contemplate objects, they would not be beautiful. He distinguishes between absolute or original beauty, which the mind may perceive in objects without comparing them with anything else, and comparative or relative beauty. What, then, is the quality which excites the idea of beauty and the pleasure which beautiful things impart? In the case of original beauty it is, he answers, uniformity amidst variety. With equal uniformity, the variety increases the beauty; and amidst equal variety the beauty is increased with the uniformity. "In every part of the world which we call beautiful, there is a surprising uniformity amidst an almost infinite variety." He shows that this is so in the movements of the heavenly bodies, in the diversified surface of the globe, in the structure of plants and animals, in the beauty of geometrical theorems, and in works of art. In all these instances pleasure, though evoked by uniformity

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