time to time to be rewritten. The late Dr. M'Cosh's work on The Scottish Philosophy, published in 1875, is a valuable repository of facts, but as a critical record it must now appear to be extremely unsatisfactory. Far more importance attaches to separate studies of the greater Scottish thinkers which have appeared in intermediate years, and to references to the philosophy of Scotland to be found in recent works. While philosophy has entered on new phases, we are now, for this very reason, able to discern more clearly the leading characteristics of Scottish philosophy, and to estimate the heritage which it has bequeathed to younger generations.

No student of philosophy can afford to neglect the past; but he cannot be expected to peruse the works of all who were famous in their time, or the discussions to which they have given rise. And there are many who, without any pretence to be specialists in philosophy, take an intelligent interest in the history of thought. To such readers, it is hoped that this volume will be of service.

UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE, 1901.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

THE national development commonly known as Scottish Philosophy dates from the beginning of the eighteenth century. At a much earlier period, indeed, the name and fame of Scottish thinkers ran throughout Europe. The troubled condition of the realm was unfriendly to learning or speculation; but yet, under the guidance of the Church, the sturdy races who contributed to the making of Scotland gradually found room for their energies in thought and study as well as in political turmoil and deeds of arms. From the fourteenth century onward Scotsmen were apt pupils and skilful teachers of the Scholastic Philosophy. While Bruce raised the standard of independence in Scotland, John Duns Scotus-so called parce qu'il était natif d'Ecosse -maintained at the University of Paris theses which gave rise to the long controversy between the Scotists and the Thomists. The subtle doctor was followed by other Scotsmen who maintained the credit of their country in the Universities of Europe, acquiring the reputation of paying special attention to philosophy.

A

According to Sir Thomas Urquhart, where there was one preceptor of languages among them, there were over forty professors of philosophy; and, allowing for exaggeration, it cannot be doubted that the national genius was peculiarly favourable to philosophy and theology.

The Universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, founded in the fifteenth century, introduced into Scotland the systematic teaching of the scholastic logic, metaphysics, and ethics. The increase of Scottish scholars, for whom there was but a scanty demand in their native country, led to an increasing exodus to the wider field of the Continent. But the story of the Scottish philosopher abroad belongs to the history of the European republic of letters; and it would lead us equally beyond our subject to follow the fortunes of the Scottish Universities from their origin to their temporary decay at the time of the Reformation. In the brief career of activity and success which each of them experienced within this period, nothing was evolved which was distinctively national. These Universities, like all others founded by the Church of Rome, belonged, as Burton has said, "not to a province or nation, but to the Christian world."

The Scottish Reformation was essentially a popular movement under Knox and other Protestant leaders. The theological tenets of Calvinism became common property, and thoughtful minds were occupied with philosophical questions in theological disguise. But in the midst of conflicts with Roman Catholicism and prelacy, there was little room for the growth of philosophy proper. In the reformed Universities, to