5. Words which indicate any person or thing, without either naming or describing, are called PRONOUNS. These include PERSONAL, as I, thou, we, he, they; and ADJECTIVE, as these, those (Demonstrative), my, your (Possessive), who, which (Relative or Interrogative).

6. Words like build, fight, stand, be, suffer, which express actions or conditions, are called VERBS.

7. Words like conquering, going, gone, beaten, which describe by means of actions or conditions, are called PARTICIPLES.

8. Words like nobly, well, very, here, now, to-day, which define an action or quality in manner, place, time, or the like, are called ADVERBS.

9. Words like for, with, by, against, which show the relation between a noun and other words in the sentence, are called PREPOSITIONS.

10. Words like and, or, if, but, then, which connect words or sentences together, are called CONJUNCTIONS.

11. Some words as where, while, till, nevertheless, both define as adverbs and connect as conjunctions. These are called ADVERBIAL CONJUNCTIONS.

12. Words like ah! ho! alas! are mere exclamations, and are not strictly parts of speech, but are called INTERJECTIONS.

3. THE ORDER OF Words.

THE order of words in Latin is comparatively free; but the following rules may serve as a guide to the beginner.

1. In general, put the Subject first and the Verb last. But2. Any very emphatic word may be first or last.

3. An Adjective, except for emphasis, follows the noun; but may precede the preposition with its noun: as, multis in locis.

4. The verb inquam (in quotations), and the conjunctions autem, enim, quoque, vero, always follow one or more words in their clause. 5 The order is very often determined by Emphasis or Contrast. 6. Observe carefully and imitate the form of the sentences given as examples. (For special rules of arrangement, see Gr. § 76)

ELEMENTARY

LESSONS.

Lesson I.

Pronunciation and Accent.

NOTE. Pronunciation should be taught orally by the teacher. The pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. Among us, it usually follows one of two ways, which may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) and the English.

1. By the Roman (or Phonetic) method, every letter has always the same sound, as follows:

VOWELS ā as in father;

ē as in rein;

ī as in machine;

ō as in holy;

ǎ as in fast.

ĕ as in met.

I as in pin or piano.

Ŏ as in obey.

u as in rude (oo in boot); ŭ as in full.

N.B.- Vowels marked thus, ā, ē, ī, ō, ū, are long; marked thus, ǎ, ě, Ĭ, ŏ, ŭ, are short. A long syllable is reckoned equal to two short ones.

X.

DIPHTHONGS: ae like ay1oe like oy; au like ow in now.
ei as in eight; eu as ew;2ui as we (oo'ee).

CONSONANTS: c and g are always hard, as in come, get.
s is always sharp, as in sea, lips.

j is like y; v like w (or v); qu as in English.
bs is like ps; ch like k; ph like f.

2. By the English method, the letters have the same sound as in English; but —

a. There are no silent letters, each word having as many syllables as there are vowels or diphthongs.

b. Final a is pronounced as in America; but in the monosyllables ā, dā, quā, stā, the long sound is sometimes given.

1 Particle of Affirmation.

2 As in few.

c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee; au like aw; eu like ew; ei and ui like i in kite; es and (in plural words) os at the end of a word, as in disease, morose.

d. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu; ch is always hard, as in chasm, chemist.

3. The following are general Rules of Quantity

a. A vowel before another vowel or h is short: as in vĩa, nihil. b. A diphthong is long: as in aedēs, foedus.

c. A syllable formed by contraction is long: as, nīl (nihil). d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, or a double consonant (x, z), is long: as in rēctus, rēxit.

e. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r is common; i. e. it may be long in verse: as in alacris. 4. The following are Rules of Accent:

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable.

b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, if that is long: as, amï'cus; if it is short or common, then on the Antepenult: as, do'minus, a'lacris.

DEFINITION: The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.

Lesson 2.

The Inflection of Nouns.

1. Nouns are of three Genders, masculine (M.), feminine (F.), and neuter (N.).

a. Names of male beings, rivers, winds, and mountains are Masculine.

b. Names of female beings, cities, countries, and plants, are Feminine.

c. Neuter nouns include indeclinable nouns, terms or phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their form.

d. Many names of Things as lapis (M.), a stone, mēnsa (F.), a table -are masculine or feminine.

e. Nouns which may be of either gender according to sex are said to be of Common gender (C.): as, dux, leader; bōs, ox or cow.

2. Nouns are declined in two Numbers, singular and plural; and in six Cases, nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative.

a. The Nominative is the case of the Subject of a sentence (see Lesson 6).

b. The Genitive may generally be translated by the English Possessive, or with the preposition OF.

c. The Dative is the case of the Indirect Object: it may usually be translated with the preposition To or FOR; but sometimes corresponds to the English Objective.

d. The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object (see Lesson 7): it is used with most of the Latin Prepositions.

e. The Vocative is the case of Direct Address.

f. The Ablative may usually be translated with the prepositions FROM, BY, WITH, IN, or AT.

g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used as object-cases; and are sometimes called oblique cases. N. B. — The meanings and uses of the Cases, which are very numerous, will be shown in the "Constructions of Syntax" (pages 75 to 99).

3. Nouns are inflected in five Declensions, which are thus distinguished:·

a. A syllable having a signification of its own, from which that of a word is derived, is called a Roor: thus from the root STA, stand, is derived the word unstable (that which cannot stand).

b. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called a STEM: thus in milit-is, of a soldier, the stem is milit-. c. The last letter of the stem is called the stem-letter or characteristic; when a vowel, it is often blended with the termination : as, currus for curru-is.

NOTE. In the following Lessons, and in the Vocabularies, only long vowels are, in general, marked. Those not marked, whether or not long by position, are to be considered short or common.

Lesson 3.

First Declension of Nouns.

1. LEARN the inflection of stella (F.), giving the name and meaning of all the Cases,

as follows (§ 9):

PLURAL.

stellae, stars.

stellarum, of stars. stellis, to stars. stellās, stars.

stellae, ye stars!

stellis, with stars.

2. In like manner decline the following:

Athenae (F. plur.), Athens.

cōpiae (F. plur.), forces.

dea (F), goddess (a).

filia (F.), daughter (a).

insula (F.), island.

nauta (M.), sailor.

patria (F.), native-land.

porta (F.), gate.

Rōma (F.), Rome (b).

silva (F.), wood, forest.
terra (F.), earth, land.

via longa (F.), a long way (c).

a. The dative and ablative plural of dea, filia, and a few other words, end in ābus (see 2. e).*

These forms

b. The singular form Rōmae is used to mean at Rome; and the plural form Athēnīs to mean at Athens (2. c). are called LOCATIVE (see Rule 36, p. 163).

c. Adjectives (as longa) are declined like nouns.

3. Decline the following Greek nouns:

a. These nouns are inflected regularly in the plural. b. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine.

See EXERCISE, page 46.

*The References are to Allen and Greenough's Latin Grammar.