traced to the Romans, who had such a book containing a list of officers of the state, and names of magistrates, as well as the fortunate days and festivals. One of the earliest of the modern publications of this kind was printed at Venice, in 1636: it contains a list of all the persons filling public departments, and a minute account of the imperial household; among the officers of which, fools or court jesters are particularly mentioned. NEWSPAPERS. BEFORE the invention of newspapers, pilgrims and persons attending fairs, were grand sources of conveying intelligence. Blacksmiths' shops, hermitages, &c. were other resorts for this purpose, as well as the mill and market. Our chief nobility had correspondents abroad and in London, on purpose to write letters of news: in London, as St. Paul's Cathedral, was a great place to stick bills for advertising, as it was also the place for news, which servants were sent there to gather. In England, the first example that occurs of a newspaper, was a publication printed by order of Queen Elizabeth; three numbers of which are preserved in the British Museum, the earliest containing news of the Spanish armada being seen in the British Channel. From the time of this publication being given up, we find no con tinued vehicle for political intelligence, with a fixed title, for many years. In the reign of James I. packets of news were published in small square pamphlets, as they were received from abroad; and these occasional pamphlets were subsequently converted into a regular weekly publication, entitled "The Newes of the present Week." In the time of the Charleses, newspapers were multiplied to a great extent; but in 1680, they were prohibited by royal proclamation. The first of the daily papers published in Great Britain, appeared in London, in the early part of the reign of Queen Anne. In the reigns of George I. and II. more than half a dozen journals, almost exclusively devoted to the communication of news, were established in London; but as yet much was wanting to complete the scheme of our present newspapers. At the accession of George III., and for many subsequent years, we find in the papers of the day, neither political discussion, parliamentary intelligence, nor even reports of the proceedings of the courts of law. The debates of parliament were at that time unknown to the people; the commencement and conclusion of a session were mentioned sometimes in a single paragraph; and, if a member of parliament wished to inform his constituents of what line of conduct he had pursued, he was obliged to correspond with them by letter. Even domestic information was so scantily diffused, that one of the earliest country newspapers, established in the West of England, used to communicate the intelligence from Yorkshire, and other parts of the north, under the head of foreign news. We will not attempt to enumerate the improvements in newspapers within the last twenty years, but prefer a few facts to show the vast labour and expense which are requisite to produce a daily newspaper, say, for example, the Times. Each day's newspaper contains upwards of three hundred thousand types, or moveable pieces of metal, to compose or put together, which is employment for fifty persons, while fifty other persons are in activity to complete the newspaper. The subjects or news are collected by methods too numerous to describe from all parts of London, and by post, or by express, from the country, and from abroad; and in some cases, in time of war, persons have been sent by the proprietors of newspapers, with the army, to report the success *. The rapidity with which the speeches of members of parliament are reported is the most surprising of the whole management of a newspaper: for, it frequently happens that the debates are carried on to three and four o'clock in the morning, that is to within six hours of the time for the publication of the newspapers; yet, how often does a member of parliament read at his breakfast-table the speech which he himself made but a few hours previously. The sheets are printed off by ma * This was done in 1826, when the late Mr. Canning dispatched the British troops to Portugal. chinery, worked by a steam-engine, at the rate of four thousand copies on one side in an hour; and, altogether, twelve thousand newspapers printed on both sides, are produced for the public in six hours. To give the reader some idea of the printing machinery, we may say, the blank sheets of paper are passed round rollers over the type, (which has been blackened), somewhat in the manner of linen through a mangle; but with inconceivably more rapidity. Now, the price of a newspaper is seven-pence; but about three-pence farthing is paid to government for the stamp; the blank paper costs one penny farthing; and the printer sells the paper, when printed, to the newsman for sixpence, so that it costs the printer four-pence halfpenny, and thus allows but one penny farthing for printing, and all the expenses of obtaining the news, &c. For the insertion of advertisements, the parties interested pay various sums, from five shillings to as many guineas, according to the length, and for each advertisement is paid one shilling and sixpence duty to Government, besides the penny farthing stamp upon each copy of the newspaper. The profit arises from the immense number of newspapers sold daily, and the money received for the advertisements : the latter has been known to amount to three hundred thousand pounds, and it may be calculated that the consumption of newspapers in one year costs the people of England very nearly one million sterling. 113 THE POST-OFFICE. THE Post-office was not established in England till the seventeenth century. Postmasters, in deed, existed in more ancient times; but their business was confined to the furnishing of posthorses to persons who were desirous of travelling expeditiously, and to the dispatching of extraordinary packets upon special occasions. In 1635, Charles I. erected a letter-office for England and Scotland; but this extended only to a few of the principal roads, the times of carriage were uncertain, and the postmasters on each road were required to furnish horses for the conveyance of the letters at the rate of two-pence halfpenny a mile. This plan did not succeed; and, at length, a post-office for the weekly conveyance of letters to all parts of the kingdom was established in 1649; by which plan the public saved seven thousand pounds a year on account of postmasters. In 1657, the post-office was established nearly on its present footing, and the rates of postage that were then fixed were continued till the reign of Queen Anne. Mails were, however, down to 1784, conveyed either on horseback or in small carts; and instead of being the most expeditious and safest conveyance, the post had become, at the latter period, one of the slowest and most easily robbed of any in the country. In 1784, the coaches accomplished the journey from London to Bath in seventeen I |