detail. But we should not suppose that in Rome every man was a Nero and every woman a Julia; for Juvenal doubtless chose the most striking examples to illustrate and enforce his argument. History does not often occupy herself with simple virtue, but she has fortunately given us refreshing glimpses of sterling manhood, pure and noble womanhood, and domestic peace,' which serve to show that private life in the first century was not in all quarters so degenerate as Juvenal alone might lead us to suppose.

2

23. Lack of moral perspective. What strikes us as most peculiar in Juvenal's attitude toward moral questions is his lack of perspective; his fiercest indignation is aroused by the slightest faults. The youth who squanders his resources on fast horses is just as bad as the husband who fattens on the proceeds of his wife's dishonor-perhaps worse, because he actually holds the reins himself'; and the most unspeakable and unnatural vices are far less monstrous than the public appearance of a nobleman as a gladiator.* Nothing is more evident than that Juvenal lacked a fine discrimination in moral questions and made little effort to distinguish varying degrees of guilt.

5

24. Use of personal names. The large number of personal names in the satires makes it necessary to raise the question whether or not Juvenal always refers to real persons. Of course, many well-known historical characters figure in these pages: Seianus, the powerful praefectus praetorio of Tiberius; Pallas," Posides,' and Narcissus," the freedmen of Claudius; Lucusta" the poisoner, Tigellinus the boon companion of Nero, Crispinus "the court favorite, Rutilius Gallicus" the praefectus urbi, and other prominent figures of the reign of Domitian. Of men eminent

10

1 Evidence of this may be found especially in inscriptions, for which, of course, space may not here be taken.

3

in literature Juvenal mentions Lucan,' Quintilian,' and Statius, but has no reference either to his friend Martial or to the other famous writers of the period. But, apart from such names as represent well-known persons, there are many names, appearing in Juvenal alone or in both Juvenal and Martial, which are unknown from other sources.* For example, Matho in 1, 32 is a lawyer, in 7, 129 a bankrupt, in 11, 34 a mouthing orator; in these, however, as in many other similar cases, there is nothing to show that the same individual is meant. On the whole, it seems likely that those names which cannot be connected with persons known to history are, at least in many instances, purely fictitious and were taken at random to represent certain more or less clearly defined types."

25. Juvenal's treatment of the satura. In devoting himself to the composition of satire Juvenal claims to be a follower of Lucilius and of Horace'; but, while preserving the tradition of the department in certain respects unbroken, he developed some features of the satura in a way entirely his own. He did not allow himself the variety of metres employed by Ennius, Lucilius, Varro, and Petronius; but, following the example of Horace, confined himself to the dactylic hexameter. And yet the hexameter of Juvenal is a very different verse from that of Lucilius or even of Horace. Instead of the rather rough and careless metre of the earlier satirists, with its frequent elisions and metrical licenses, we find in Juvenal the more polished, stately, and sonorous rhythm which was characteristic of the epic poetry of his time and which was based on imitation of Vergil. The medley of subjects treated, which

1 79.

7,

2 6, 75, 280; 7, 186 ff.

3

7, 83.

4 Friedländer (ed. p. 100), arguing from the assumption that a recurring name in Juvenal regularly indicates the same person each time, comes to the conclusion that the satirist usually introduces real persons and gives them their true names, But this assumption is not warranted by the evidence.

Cf. A. Gercke, Gött. gel. Anz., 1896, pp. 977 f.

⚫ 1, 20, 51.

was in the early period an essential feature of the satura and was accepted as such by Horace, Juvenal also recognized,' and in this respect he conformed to the practice of his predecessors. In his case, however, the general effect is so modified by the constant presence of the spirit of censure, especially in the earlier books, which alone can be said to contain real satires, that we are not so much impressed by the variety of subject as by the uniformity of treatment. The element of dialogue, also, which was quite regular in the early stages and was largely introduced by Horace, takes a less prominent place in Juvenal. The ninth satire is the only real dialogue, the third is a long monologue with the necessary introduction and conclusion, and fragments of dialogue are found in the first.' Thus we see that while dealing independently with the satura and developing it to some extent along lines peculiar to himself, he was yet not entirely unmindful of the example of his predecessors in this field.

4

26. Reminiscences of other poets. Like most other poets of his time, Juvenal was doubtless a diligent student of literature, both Greek and Roman. His use of Homeric names and comparisons' and his occasional reminiscences of Lucilius, Ovid, Petronius, Seneca, and other writers, which are pointed out from time to time in the commentary, furnish good ground for this statement. But there are authors whose greater influence on the satirist calls for special remark; namely, Vergil,' Horace," and Martial." When we remember that by the latter part of the first century Vergil and Horace were the text-books of every Roman schoolboy, we are not surprised to find echoes of these poets everywhere in the literature of the period. In the

I,

2 1, 100-26, 150-71.

3 1, 43, 61; 3, 279 f.

1 86. Note on 4, 2; cf. A. Gercke, Seneca-Studien, in Fleckeisen's Jahrb., Suppl. 22, 1896, p. 103. 5 J. Gehlen, De Iuvenale Vergilii imitatore, Gottingae, 1886.

P. Schwartz, De Iuvenale Horatii imitatore, Hal. Sax., 1882.

7 H. L. Wilson, The Literary Influence of Martial upon Juvenal, in Am. Jour. Phil., XIX, 1898, pp. 193–209.

8 7, 227.

satires of Juvenal are found reminiscences of word and phrase, often with the thought or point of view quite changed, borrowed comparisons, parodies, metrical and other peculiarities, all of which point to the satirist's thorough familiarity with these writers and sometimes even conscious imitation of them.' But there is none with whom Juvenal seems to have had so close a literary connection as with Martial. When the two authors are read together, as they should be, coincidences of thought and expression crowd upon the attention in such numbers that it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the one was deeply influenced by the other. We have seen that the two poets were on terms of intimate friendship,' so that Juvenal must have been perfectly familiar with the epigrams, the last of which were published in the year 101-102, some time, in all probability, before he had written any of the satires. are not to suppose, then, that the numerous striking parallels are on the whole merely accidental and caused by a common environment, or that the two poets "virtually worked together"; but rather we are led to conclude that Juvenal, sometimes unconsciously, but often intentionally, allowed the familiar thoughts and even the words of his friend to reappear in his own pages. As a rule, however, he seems to have avoided expressing the same thought in the same way as Martial, though now and then he borrows Martial's words, giving them a new meaning or adapting them to a different point of view.

4

1 See, for example, notes on 1, 25, 43, 169; 3, 70; 5, 139, 142; 7, 42, 145; 10, 204 f., 217, 266 f., 268; 12, 9, 32; 13, 222; 14, 62, 230; 15, 100, 127. echoes of Horace, see 1, 51, 165; 3, 143; 5, 88; 7, 53, 62, etc.

2 § 8.

We

235; 8, 120,

For possible

3 Cf. §§ 10 f.

4 This is the view of Friedländer, in Bursian's Jahresb., LXXII, 1892, p. 191, and edition of Juvenal, p. 46.

5 This view of H. Nettleship (Lect. and Essays, Second Series, 1895, p. 131) would involve us in great chronological difficulties.

• A detailed study of this subject is given by H. L. Wilson in the article before mentioned, Many parallels are found also in the commentary,

History of the Text

4

2

27. Influence of Juvenal. The first centuries after the death of Juvenal show no sign that his satires were read or known. Not even his name appears in extant literature after the time when Martial ceased to write,' until in the earlier part of the fourth century he is cited by Lactantius. In the course of the next one hundred years the satires seem to have become exceedingly popular not only among scholars and men of letters, such as Servius,' Ausonius, Prudentius,' and Claudian, but also among educated Romans in general.' The influence of Juvenal from this time onward and all through the Middle Ages was very great, and many an echo and reminiscence of his poems finds place in the literature not only of Italy, but of France, Germany, and Britain.' Copies were multiplied and scattered throughout Europe; indeed, there was scarcely a monastery that had not one or more, and commentaries and glossaries were very common."

6

10

28. Codex Pithoeanus. The best complete " Ms. of Juvenal now extant is usually called the codex Pithoeanus (P) after Pierre Pithou, the French lawyer, who edited the satires from it in 1585. It is also frequently referred to as the

' Cf. § 26.

2 Divin. Institut. III, 29, 17; cf. Iuv. 10, 365 f.

Note the frequent citation of Juvenal in Servius' commentary on Vergil.

H. de la Ville de Mirmont, De Ausonii Mosella, Paris, 1892, pp. 281 ff.

5 E. B. Lease, A Syntactic, Stylistic, and Metrical Study of Prudentius, Baltimore, 1895, pp. 71 f.

Th. Birt, Zwei politische Satiren des alten Rom, Marburg, 1888, pp. 52–63.

7 Ammian. XXVIII, 4, 14 quidam detestantes ut venena doctrinas Iuvenalem et Marium Maximum curatiore studio legunt, nulla volumina praeter haec in profundo otio contrectantes.

For details see M. Manitius, Beiträge zur Gesch. d. röm. Dichter im Mittelalter. 4. Iuvenalis, in Philologus, L, 1891, pp. 354-68, supplemented by M. Maas, ib. LVI, 1897, pp. 525-34, and LVIII, 1899, pp. 157–60.

M. Manitius, Philologisches aus alten Bibliothekskatalogen, in Rhein. Mus., XLVII, 1892, Ergänzungsheft, pp. 66-8. The influence of Juvenal on modern satire was very great; echoes are quoted in the notes.

10 That is, complete to 16, 60; like all other known copies of Juvenal, it breaks off abruptly at that point.