under Schoeman to be rebels. Lydenburg proclaimed itself an independent Republic in 1857. The "South African Republic," in spite of its high-sounding title, included little but Potchefstroom. Zoutpansberg, however, soon came to terms with Pretorius, and in 1860 a formal union took place between the South African Republic and the Republic of Lydenburg. Events were now complicated by the election of Pretorius as President of the Orange Free State. There was a strong unionist party on both sides of the Vaal, but personal rivalries again came to the front. Pretorius was compelled to resign the Presidency of the South African Republic. Mr. Grobbelaar was confirmed as Acting-President, but opposed by Schoeman (now a partisan of Pretorius), who succeeded in displacing him. Schoeman's proceedings caused an armed insurrection, led by Paul Kruger, who thus came into political prominence for the first time. A brisk civil war was carried on between Kruger and Schoeman, but the former soon took Pretoria-founded in 1855, and now growing into importance—and established his authority. In 1863 Van Rensberg was elected President, and another rising took place, resulting in a second civil war between Kruger and Viljoen. Next year Pretorius, his term of office in the Free State having expired, was re-elected President of the South African Republic, and Kruger became Commandant-General. Other native campaigns followed, and the Boers contracted an alliance with the Swazis, and opened relations with Cetywayo, son of the Zulu chief Panda. In 1865 the Zoutpansberg district fell into complete anarchy it had become a haunt of white filibusters and black marauders, and a good many farms were abandoned, partly because of these disorders, and partly from the fever endemic in the district. In the south the Republic made a treaty of peace with Moshesh, and settled its boundary dispute with the Free State. Before the former event, a commando under Kruger had helped the Free State Boers against the Basutos. In the latter

case recourse was had to the arbitration of LieutenantGovernor Keate of Natal, who pronounced in favour of the South African Republic. In 1868 gold was discovered in Tati, and President Pretorius issued a proclamation extending the boundaries of the Republic westwards to Lake Ngami, eastward to the sea, and northward into Mashonaland. Sir Philip Wodehouse and the Portuguese Government at once protested. The proclamation would have annexed Bechuanaland, put a stop to missionary enterprise, and cut off the road to the north. The Boers, though they admitted German missionaries, were bitterly hostile to English, disapproving of the native policy adopted by the latter, and have also shown hostility to those French Protestant pastors who have done such good work in Basutoland and Barotsiland. President Pretorius had to withdraw his claims, but the western boundary was left unsettled. In 1869 a treaty was concluded with Portugal. This event introduced a friendlier feeling towards Roman Catholics, and in 1870 religious freedom was for the first time introduced into the South African Republic.

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A most important boundary dispute must now be noticed. The discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West caused a northward extension of British territory, the first sign of a reversal of the policy of the fifties. İt is impossible to go into the diamond-field question here. questionably the Orange Free State received very hard treatment from the Imperial Government. But besides Griqualand, some territory on the Vaal, claimed by the Barolong and the South African Republic, was in dispute. This second matter was referred to Lieutenant-Governor Keate for arbitration. He decided against the Transvaal -rightly, Dr. Theal thinks, on the evidence before him, but in effect unjustly, since the Transvaal case was very carelessly prepared. The Volksraad were furious, the award was not carried into effect, but Pretorius had to resign. A strong party desired to elect President Brand of the Free State, and thus unite the Republics. But it

was doubtful what effect such a union would have on the

Conventions of 1852 and 1854, and President Brand was not inclined to accept the idea. Finally, in 1872, Mr.

Burgers was elected President.

The election of Mr. Burgers marks the beginning of the modern history of the Transvaal. He was a man of ability and education, and a Cape Dutchman. He had been a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, but had resigned that office on account of his heterodox views. In temper, character, and aspirations he presented a complete contrast with the Conservative type, of which Paul Kruger is such a striking example. He desired to bring the South African Republic into the comity of nations, whereas his people for the most part preferred their old isolation. The new President was full of ambitious schemes, and paid a visit to Europe for the purpose of obtaining a loan. He established a mint, endeavoured to build a railway to Delagoa Bay, and attempted to introduce his citizens to the benefits of modern education. His visit to Europe opened up connection with the Netherlands, where he was well received, and inaugurated that Hollander immigration into the Transvaal, which has since had such marked results. Many Hollanders have filled educational and administrative posts in the Republic, which the Boer farmers were incapable of holding. But while the services of some able men-notably, Dr. Jorissen and Dr. Leyds-have been secured, a very bad feeling between "Afrikander" and Hollander still exists. The Boer looks on the newcomer as a degenerate townsman, who can neither ride nor shoot, while he resents his intellectual superiority. The attempts of schoolmasters to teach the Boer children "High Dutch," instead of the "Taal" (the Afrikander patois) spoken by their fathers, caused general indignation. Although Dr. Leyds has for years been influential in directing Transvaal policy, he has never been popular among the Boers. The Hollander influx has been most marked since the retrocession, but its inception was due to President Burgers.

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Under the new rules the affairs of the Republic did not prosper. The discovery of gold at Pilgrims' Rest introduced a new element and a mining population. The Transvaal became a South African Alsatia, where lawless spirits from all the colonies congregated. The Boers were very remiss in paying taxes, and disliked the President's new-fangled methods. A campaign against Sekukuni ended in disaster, while a frontier dispute with Cetywayo, who was now at the head of a fine military nation, threatened a new danger. The British Government, aroused by stories of ill-usage of the natives, addressed successive remonstrances to the Republican Government. It is only fair to say that the stories of Boer oppression seem to have been exaggerated. The system of "apprenticeship" can indeed hardly be defended, but English critics sometimes forget to-day that the Cape Government in 1897 carried out this same system at the expense of Bechuana rebels, and that their proceedings were not vetoed by Her Majesty's Government. The "apprentices" were generally the children of defeated natives against whom commandoes were sent, and it is asserted that the manufacture of native orphans became a lucrative business in the Transvaal. There was, however, no general return to slavery, as is shown by the fact that when the Transvaal was annexed no slaves were discovered by the British officials. The fact is that the authority of President Burgers, himself a humane man, was merely nominal, and that individual Boers on the frontiers had practically a free hand. The Republic was soon on the verge of bankruptcy. It is asserted that, after the annexation, the entire funds in the Pretoria Treasury amounted to twelve shillings and sixpence. The miners complained of the absence of decent government. Meanwhile native unrest was spreading through South Africa. It is significant that, between the years 1877 and 1882, the Gaikas and Gcalekas of the Transkei, the Basutos, the Zulus, and the Bapedi (Sekukuni's tribe) were all in arms against the whites.

In England Lord Carnarvon was working for a South African Federation on the Canadian model. The Orange Free State had favoured reunion with the Cape in Sir George Grey's time, but the Imperial handling of the Basuto and Griqua questions had in the interval alienated that State to an extent that was not understood at home. Still, President Brand was a moderate man of broad and statesmanlike views, and was probably prepared to meet Lord Carnarvon half-way. The Transvaal, however, constituted an obstacle to federation. It was thought that no engagements could be undertaken towards a moribund Republic, torn by internal dissension and threatened by Zulu inroads. We know now that there was in reality a strong national spirit among the Transvaal Boers, and that the Zulu danger was greatly exaggerated. The Boers understand Zulu warfare, and the sons of the conquerors of Dingaan would never have experienced an Isandhlwana.

However, Sir Theophilus Shepstone was sent to Pretoria on a special mission in 1877, and on April 12 he issued a proclamation annexing to Great Britain the territories of the South African Republic. There was no actual opposition: President Burgers, after issuing a protest, retired on a pension, and British rule was peacefully inaugurated. Sir Bartle Frere, who is generally held responsible for the annexation, had no share or part in it.* When he arrived as High Commissioner in South Africa, he found that Shepstone had acted without waiting to communicate with Cape Town. Frere accepted the situation, but the annexation took him by surprise.

Thus ended the first and less-known chapter of the Republic's story. Later events are much more familiar to English readers, and a short abstract is all that need be here attempted. The earlier history has been given in

* It seems impossible to kill the false idea that Frere annexed the Transvaal. The English Liberals, who had perhaps never heard of Shepstone, founded the legend. I note that in an otherwise excellent article on the Transvaal in Macmillan's Magazine for September, 1899, the old blunder is repeated.