the Night," "Evangeline," "A Psalm of Life," and "The Courtship of Miles Standish," will be read and admired as long as the English language is spoken. His "Hiawatha" is strikingly peculiar, both in measure and matter. Besides his many original poems, he published a translation of Dante's "Divina Commedia," which attracted much attention on account of its many excellencies. His funeral was without parade or ostentation, but was attended by many eminent literary persons. The brief services were conducted by his brother, the Rev. Samuel Longfellow. Memorial services were also held in the Chapel of Harvard College where an appropriate eulogy was pronounced by Prof. C. C. Everett. The poet is dead, but his poems will live forever. EDITOR'S NOTE-BOOK. The CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD, for August, 1882, and THE CHAUTAUQUAN for the coming year, will be $2.25, provided the subscription is sent in before July 20th. After that date the price for both periodicals for one year to one address will be $2.50. In our next number we shall give our readers a description of James R. Osgood & Co.'s heliotype process of makin pictures. It is an excellent method, bringing representations of the best paintings within the reach of all classes of people. Mr. Longfellow was born in a wooden house in Portland, which is still standing, and which is known to all the children of the city as the first abode of their favorite poet. One day after his death a teacher in one of the public schools, after giving divers moral lessons on Longfellow's beautiful life, asked her pupils if any of them knew where the poet was born. A little hand went up in a hurry, and a small voice piped forth, "In Patsey Connor's bedroom❞— Master Connor being now one of the occupants of the old Longfellow house. Mr. Longfellow, like most American writers, began his career by contributions to the literary periodicals of the day. In 1870 the total number of colored people in the southern states was estimated at about four and a half millions; now it exceeds six millions, and there are about three-quarters of a million in the northern states. Mr. James Russell Lowell is quoted by the Boston Courier as saying in a conversation about Irish poetry: "I have gone over all I could lay my hands on, and you would be surprised if I should tell you whom I consider to be the greatest of the Irish poets." Pausing a moment, he said: The greatest of Irish poets, and one of the greatest, and sometimes I think the greatest of all poets, is Edmund Burke." A correspondent writing from Texas says: "An intelligent informant here assures me that for 1881 the immigration into the State was, on an average, one thousand per day." The spring strikes which are breaking out in different parts of the land are cause for lamentation. The business prosperity of the country would seem to argue that there is no need for this kind of disturbances. And yet we have them. The ship carpenters in Maine, the plasterers in Cincinnati, clothing cutters in Rochester, and railroad men in New York stop and refuse to work, and five thousand men and women desert their spindles in the Pacific Mills, in Lawrence, Mass. Every laboring man has a right to abandon his work when his wages are not satisfactory. In the cases we have mentioned some strike to prevent a reduction of wages, while others demand increased remuneration. Statesmanship and philanthropy stand appalled before the problem, "How to harmonize capital and labor." The man is yet to come who will solve the problem. The steamer "City of Montreal" arrived at New York last month, from England, with six hundred young women as steerage passengers, and not a man among them. They came over to go into domestic service. A party who saw them says: "The very fact that they were coming for the purpose of making themselves useful, lent them a charm that aristocratic maidens lack." The "Alphabet of Moral Science," prepared by Prof. W. C. Wilkinson, D. D., especially for the C. L. S. C., will be published in the June and July numbers of THE CHAU TAUQUAN. The framework of the mammoth "Hotel Athenæum," is up, at Chautauqua. Ever since the Assembly was founded there has been much complaint about the poor hotel accommodations, but we have reached the end of these grievances. This new and elegant structure will be ready for guests in July. It will cost $100,000, and five hundred guests may find comfortable homes within its walls. Public opinion has condemned the sentence pronounced upon Sergeant Mason by the court martial at Washington. It appears to many people to be at variance with justice. The sergeant shot at the assassin in his cell. His aim was poor, hence his bullet was harmless. The sentence for his offence was a dishonorable discharge from the army, with the loss of all pay and allowances now due or to become due, and to be confined in the penitentiary at hard labor for eight years. At this writing the people of the country have contributed $10,000 for the support of the sergeant's wife and child. The Secretary of War has been forced by public opinion to modify the decision of the court, and it seems probable that the people's love for the memory of the lamented Garfield, and their regard for justice in the case of his assassin, will soon secure the freedom of Sergeant Mason. Forty thousand acres of land in Arkansas have been secured for an Italian colony. The immigrants are to come from the Tyrol, principally, and will be agriculturists. About a thousand Italians have already settled in that region. Mr. Richard Jahr, of Cleveland, Ohio, has succeeded in taking a photograph by moonlight. The picture is of the vault in Lake View Cemetery which contains President Garfield's remains. On a clear night in March he exposed a sensitive gelatine-bromide plate for seven hours, between 8 p. m. and 3 a. m., and secured an excellent print. The light of the full moon, according to Herschel's estimate, is only one three-hundred-thousandth part of that of the sun. Notwithstanding the difference in the strength of the sun's and moon's rays, Mr. Jahr's experiment was a success. It was made possible by the invention of an exceedingly sensitive gelatine-bromide plate. The Rev. Dr. Waugh, a missionary to India, is in this country. He reports the C. L. S. C. as prospering in India, and that the circulation of THE CHAUTAUQUAN is increasing there. He will be among the visitors at the Chautauqua meetings next August-for he says: "I must be able to report to the people when I return to India what I have seen and heard at that wonderful place." A recent cable dispatch from London says a request signed by three hundred persons, including the Earl of Shaftesbury, Earl Cairns, the Earl of Aberdeen, Mr. Samuel Morley, M. P., Canons Farrar and Fleming, Rev. Charles Spurgeon, and two hundred and seventy-three clergymen, has been forwarded to Messrs. Moody and Sankey, who are now at Glasgow, asking them to spend a year in London in evangelical work. This call indicates two things: First, spirituality in religion is not at a discount among these eminent church workers in London; second, Messrs. Moody and Sankey have gained rather than lost influence as revivalists in England. President Arthur's veto of the Chinese bill has wrought up the newspaper men of his party on the Pacific coast to speak very emphatically against his action. The equality of all men and their right to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness" in this country is a doctrine that, to say the least, requires a very high order of statesmanship to apply to all classes,-Indians, Chinese, colored men, etc., and at the same time preserve the unity of the spirit in the bonds of peace. The Chautauqua Foreign Missionary Institute invites all friends of Missions, Foreign and Home, in every denomination and from every land, to its fourth annual gathering at The Brighton (England) Dolphin, viewing society at the Chautauqua, from July 29 to August 3. As in other years, seashore, has the following: A red or green plush young girl, A Russian hare-muff young girl; A little fur capery Esthetic drapery, Ten-acre hat young girl. A writer in the Pall Mall Gazette on American sports and pastimes says: "The suburbs of every city from Boston to Baltimore are gay with lawn tennis players, though it is, perhaps, not so entirely the end and aim of every garden party as in England. Football and athletic clubs are more than doubling themselves every year, and the American papa is already commencing the unavailing protest that for years has been the constant cry of his British fellow sufferer, while the American novel is already introducing the 'splendid athlete' and the 'University stroke oar' as the hero of its tale." Among the eminent preachers and lecturers to be at Chautauqua in August next are Bishop Simpson, Bishop H. W. Warren, John B. Gough, Esq., The Rev. Dr. Thomas of Brooklyn, etc. We shall furnish our readers with the complete programme in the June number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Since 1878 there have been granted in the county of Philadelphia 1,364 divorces, and more than five hundred of this number have been granted during the last year. The committee of one hundred that are effecting great political reforms in the Quaker City, could find a new and important field of labor in the Legislature and Courts to prevent divorce for any but scriptural reasons. That would reach the foundation of many of our political troubles, for the family is the stronghold of the nation. When disintegration in the family becomes common, then the whole national fabric is in danger of tottering to its fall. "The Hall in the Grove" is the title of a book written by Pansy. It is designed to be a novel-like story of the planting and growth of the C. L. S. C. D. Lothrop & Co., of Boston, Mass., are the publishers. A critic asks a question which the author states, and answers in her book as follows: "There are people who call the enterprise superficial. I never knew anything that was less so. It begins at the roots of things; prepares the soil, drops the seed, tends and waters it, and says to it: 'Now grow; become an oak if you can, or an elm, or a fruit tree, anything that God intended you for; you are started.' Superficial indeed! Is an oak tree superficial, I wonder, because it started from an acorn? Chautauqua never pretended to give men and women finished educations. It only starts them, or gives a vigorous push to those who are started; brains will do the rest. I like it, too, because it does start people; I mean, it doesn't begin too high for men and women who had to work during the period of their boyhood and girlhood." the C. F. M. I., through Dr. Vincent, secures a rich program, and this we shall soon send out. Suggestions and inquiries will be welcomed by the Executive Committee: Congregational, W. A. Duncan, Esq., chairman, Syracuse, N. Y.; Baptist, A. H. Burlingham, D. D., N. Y.; Presbyterian, Rev. M. B. DeWitt, McMinnville, Tenn.; Lutheran, Rev. J. A. Clutz, Baltimore, Md.; Methodist Episcopal, M. M. Parkhurst, D. D., Elgin, Ills.; Methodist Church of Canada, Rev. J. Philp, Belgrave, Ont.; Presbyterian, D. Cunningham, D. D., Wheeling, W. Va.; Reformed, Rev. J. P. Rubenkam, Philadelphia, Pa.; United Brethren in Christ, D. Berger, D. D., Dayton, O. Latest reports of all missionary work, also papers publishing the Chautauqua notices, are desired, that they may be seen in the missionary reading room at Chautauqua; these may be sent to the St. Mark's parsonage, Buffalo, N. Y., to C. P. Hard, secretary. Speaking of books in foreign languages, Ralph Waldo Emerson recently said: "I should as soon think of swimming across the Charles River when I wish to go to Boston as of reading all my books in originals when I have them rendered for me in my mother tongue." It is reported that Prince Bismarck has given great satisfaction in Holland by his acceptance of the invitation to attend the International Conference which will discuss measures for preventing the traffic in girls. The United States Government should be represented in this Conference, and set in motion influences that would defeat the Mormon missionaries who are operating in Europe to bring recruits over to Utah. C. L. S. C. students in art will appreciate this item from the Rochester Express: "A lady in town painted a plaque in the most exquisite manner and expressed it to a friend. Soon after a note of acknowledgment came, in which the lady stated that "It is altogether too nice to use every day, so I only use it for a bread plate when we have company." CHAUTAUQUA DAYS, 1882. Opening Day, C. T. R. and C. S. L., Saturday, July 8. Denominational Congresses, Wednesday, August 9. Alumni Day-Reunion, illuminated fleet, etc., Thursday, August 10. C. L. S.C. Day, FIRST COMMENCEMENT, Saturday, Aug. 12. EDITOR'S TABLE. [We solicit questions of interest to the readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN to be answered in this department. Our space does not always allow us to answer as rapidly as questions reach us. Any relevant question will receive an answer in its turn.] Q. There seems to be so much excitement and interest about the North Pole that I am getting jealous for the South Pole. Why is it so slighted? Has it ever been reached, and is it as cold as at the North Pole? A. See editorial, page 372, March number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Q. Where can I get a biographical dictionary? Please give name of the author also. A. Lippincott & Co. publish an admirable work by Dr. J. Thomas. Q. Please inform me as to the correct name of Socrates' wife. Xantippe or Xanthippe? In reading the Illustrated History of Ancient Literature I find it to be Xantippe, and in reading a poem Xanthippe. A. Both ways have the sanction of the best authorities, although a preference is generally expressed for the use of h. Q. What is the meaning of "Niebelungen Lied?" A. An epic poem of between nine and ten thousand lines, the work of a sublime but unknown genius, and written in the German of the time of the Hohenstauffens. It is a most important literary memorial, and is reverently studied by the German scholar to this day. Such a scholar, preeminently, was Carlyle. Of the Niebelungen he says, "Vain were it to inquire where that Niebelungen land especially is; its very name is Nebel-land-mist-land. The Niebelungen that muster in thousands and tens of thousands, though they march to the Rhine or Danube, and we see their strong limbs and shining armor, we could almost fancy to be children of the air." Q. I ask you, for myself and for others, who are making "Art" albums, if there is not some way in which we can get the articles on "Christianity in Art" in a shape to paste in with the picture it describes, and at less price than it would come at to buy the three copies we otherwise would need? Our class copy we would not wish to cut. The article is printed on both sides of the page, and we would have to have two copies in order to have the article entire. We get Soule's pictures, but for the sake of the children and others, want the description near the picture. chromate as a chemical agent. An accurate and lasting transcript of pictures may thus be made. giving in Editor's Table" the correct pronunciation of the Q. Will you oblige several members of the C. L. S. C. by following: Ceramic, Renaissance, Yonge, Mikado, Correggio, Guido-Reni, Van Eyck, Dürer, Leonardo da Vinci, Holbein, Giotto, Medici. Beatrice Cenci, Chopin, Beethoven, Liszt, Lübke and Bach. A. Ce-răm'-ic, Ruh-na-sângs, Yung, Me-kâ'-do, Kor-red-jó, Gwe'-do-Ra-ne, Van-ike, Dürer, La-o-nar'-do da Vin' che, Hole-bine, Jotto, Mã-de-che, Bā a-trē-chā Chen'che, Shopăng, Bã-to-ven, List, Lüp-keh, Bakh. Q. Who or what was "Enone," the subject of one of Harriet Hosmer's statues mentioned in the October CHAUTAUQUAN? A. A mythological character, a nymph of Mount Ida, said to have been married to Paris, who deserted her for Helen, the beautiful wife of Menelaus. Q. Can you tell me of any firm in this or any foreign country that publishes maps in single sheets-from which single maps can be purchased? Referred to our readers for an answer. Q. What is the difference between "epoch" and "period?" A. Its water is said to be sweet, cool and transparent. A. It is difficult to know why they were thus named. It was seven years after Cleopatra's death that the obelisks bearing her name, of which that at New York is one, were taken from their pedestal at Heliopolis, where they had stood for sixteen hundred years, and floated down the Nile to Alexandria. Q. Are there any of the writings of Socrates printed in the English language? A. No; nor in any language. Socrates committed nothing to writing; he taught his disciples orally. Almost all we know of his views and personal character is derived from the works of his two principal disciples, Plato and Xen A. Two copies for each picture is the only way in which ophon. Translations of these can be obtained. it can be done. Q. By whom and when was oil painting first employed? A. It is commonly said to have been invented by the brothers Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, Flemish painters of the fourteenth century. There is evidence, however, of its existence two or three centuries earlier. Their invention was an improved method of preparing the pigments. Q. Please answer through THE CHAUTAUQUAN why postage stamps sent on subscription can not be used in paying the postage of the magazine? A. Postage on magazines is estimated by weight, not by the copy or number of copies. Postage stamps will not be received in bulk in payment of postal charges. The government sells, but does not buy them. Q. Was Chief Justice John Marshall ever a minister of the gospel? A. No. Q. Is George Bancroft, the historian, still living? Q. Who was Polyphemus? A. A cyclops or giant of Sicily, said to have one eye in his forehead. (See "Odyssey" of Homer and Virgil's "Eneid.") Q. What is an autotype? A. A photograph produced by the use of potassium bi BOOKS RECEIVED. From CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, New York: "Bonnicastle," by Dr. J. G. Holland; "Bay Path," by Dr. J. G. Holland; "The Gospel by Matthew," explained by Philip Schaff, D. D., LL. D. From J. B. LIPPINCOTT & Co., Philadelphia, Pa.: "Memories of Old Friends," by Caroline Fox; "Eternal Purpose," by William R. Hart. From HARPER & BROTHERS, New York: "Harpers' Cyclopædia of United States History." two volumes, by Benson J. Lossing; "French History for English Children," by Sarah Brook; "Educational Theories," by Oscar Browning; "Old Greek Education," by J. P. Mahaffy; "Charles Lan b," by Alfred Ainger; "A Manual of Historical Literature," by Charles K. Adams, LL. D.; "Great Movements and Those who Achieved Them," by Henry J. Nicholl; "The Making of England." by John Richard Green, LL. D.; "Metaphysics, a Study in First Principles," by Prof. Borden T. Brown. From PHILLIPS & HUNT, New York: "People's Cyclopedia," two volumes, by W. H. Depuy, D. D. From A. C. ARMSTRONG & SON, New York: CHAUTAUQUA—1882. The natural development of the Chautauqua movement, and the unparalleled success of the summer schools for students of language and for secular teachers preceding the Assembly at Chautauqua, justify the managers in opening its early and general exercises to the public. The coming "season" will therefore open on Saturday, July 8, and continue during the Assembly, until August 21. THE OPENING DAY, Saturday, July 8, will be a grand occasion. The new chorus pipe organ in the Amphitheater will be dedicated on that day in connection with two splendid concerts—vocal and instrumental-under the direction of Prof. W. F. Sherwin, who will be assisted by Prof. E. E. Ayres, of Kentucky, and Miss Belle McClintock, of Meadville, Pa., Miss Ethel Crippen, of Macon, Ga., Signor Giuseppe Vitale, the celebrated violinist, the Misses Linnie and Minnie Beecher, of Brooklyn, (aged respectively 9 and 11 years), the two marvelous child-violinists. Dr. J. H. Vincent will deliver the opening address before the C. T. R. and the C. S. L. On the same day Prof. Wm. T. Harris, D. D., of Concord, Mass., will deliver a lecture on "Education in Greece and Rome, in the Early Christian Times and in the Middle Ages." Brief salutations from the several professors of the C. S. T. and C. S. L. will be given. The annual reception of the two schools will take place | on Saturday evening, July 8, in the new parlors of the Athenæum Hotel. The Archeological and Oriental and Art Museum will be opened on Saturday, July 8, by A. O. Van Lennep, Esq. Between July 8 and 28 several courses of LECTURES, LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC, will be delivered before the C. T. R. and the C. S. L., and opened to the public. Citizens of the neighboring towns and cities, and guests of the several hotels on the lake will have a rare opportunity to attend several courses of lectures of great value. Wallace Bruce, Esq., one of the most eloquent lecturers on the American platform, will deliver a series as follows: "Womanhood in Shakspere," "Robert Burns," "Landmarks of Scott," "Washington Irving," "William Cullen Bry ant." Prof. Wm. H. Niles, of Cambridge, Mass., and of the Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., will lecture on: "The Origin of Mountain Scenery," "The Snow fields of the Alps," "The Glaciers of the Alps," "Some Celebrated Lakes," "Holland and its People." Prof. J. T. Edwards, D. D., of Randolph, N. Y., will give a series of five lecture-lessons on "Physics," with one hundred experiments, and five in "Chemistry," with one hundred experiments. D. MacClintock; in Rhetoric, Hon. J. W. Dickinson; in Clay Modeling, Edward A. Spring. Sculptor; in Art History and Drawing, Prof. Frank Beard; in Phonography, Prof. W. D. Bridge. Dr. James Strong will deliver several lectures on Biblical and archeological subjects. Prof. G. J. Luckey, of Pittsburgh, Pa., will lecture on "How to Teach Arithmetic." Miss Jennie Green, of Akron, O., will give lessons in Voice Culture. During the Assembly, Prof. J. W. Churchill, of Andover, Mass., will give a course in Elocution. The delights of social receptions, concerts, camp fires, excursions on the lake, a spelling match, a debating society, picnics, soirees, conversazioni, etc., etc., will be provided. An admission fee of twenty-five cents a day will be charged all persons coming on the grounds between July 8 and 28. Season tickets at reduced rates will be supplied. THE ASSEMBLY. The Assembly proper will this year present unprecedented attractions: The Royal Hand-Bell Ringers and Gleemen, of London, England, Mr. Duncan S. Miller, conductor; the child violinists; Signor Vitale; superior concerts under the direction of Prof. C. C. Case and Prof. W. F. Sherwin; lectures by John B. Gough, Esq., Bishop Matthew Simpson, Dr. J. B. Thomas, of Brooklyn, N. Y., Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Dr. F. L. Patton, of Princeton, N. J., Frank Beard, Bishop R. S. Foster, Dr. Lyman Abbott, Bishop H. W. Warren, Chaplain C. C. McCabe, General C. B. Fisk, Dr. J. M. Buckley, and many others. The first Commencement Day of the C. L. 8. C., Saturday, August 12, will be the golden day in the history of Chauqua. THE CHAUTAUQUAN. The second volume opened with the October number 1881. It is enlarged from forty-eight to seventy-two pages. Ten numbers in the volume, beginning with October and ending with July, More than half the course of study for the C L. S. C. the present year is being published in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and nowhere else, embracing: "Mosaics of History." "Christianity in Art," "Christ in Chronology," popular articles on Geology, Political Economy, Mathematics, Health at Home, Mental Science, Moral Science, together with articles on Practical Life. C. L. S. C. Notes and Letters, reports of Round-Table Conferences, Questions and Answers on every book in the course of study, and reports from Local Circles will appear in every number. Also lectures and sermons on popular themes from many of the foremost lecturers and preachers of the times. George Borrow's excellent novel, entitled “Lavengro," is now being published as a serial. It is a dream or drama, the story of a Scholar, a Gypsy, and a Priest. It is scholarly and fascinating. The Editor's Outlook," "Editor's Note-Book," and "Editor's Table," will discuss the live questions of the times. Subscription Price, per year, $1.50 Five Subscriptions at one Time, Each, $1.35 A complete set of the CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY HERALD for 1881, containing more than sixty lectures delivered at Chautauqua. Price, $1.00. THE CHAUTAUQUAN for 1881-1882, and a complete volume of the CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY HERALD for 1881, containing nineteen numbers, will be sent, postage paid by us, tor $2 25. Back numbers of the current volume of THE CHAUTAUQUAN can be supplied. On Monday, July 10, Prof. Wm. T. Harris will lecture on "Education in Europe and America in Moderu Times." Papers will be read during the C. T. R. by Prof. W. D. MacClintock, on "English Poetry;" by Dan'l H. Post, Esq., on "The Literature Our Young People Read;" and by C. CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY HERALD AND THE CHAUTAUQUAN E. Bishop, Esq., on "The Three L's in Education." Prof. N. Coe Stewart, of the Cleveland, O., public schools, will give a series of lessons in music; Prof. E. E. Ayres, of Kentucky, a series of ten public lectures on "The History and Science of Music," from the days of the ancient Egyptians to the "Wagner School" of our times. These lectures will be illustrated by violin, piano, organ, and class recitals. The force of instructors in the C. T. R. and C. S. L. will be unusually strong. In German, Prof. J. H. Worman; in French, Prof. A. Lalande; in Latin and Greek, Prof. H. Lummis; in Hebrew, Dr. Jas. Strong; in English, Prof. W. For 1882-83. The CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD, for August, 1882, and THE CHAUTAUQUAN for the coming year, will be $2.25, provided the subscription is sent in before July 20th. After that date the price for both nerio 1ica's for one year to one address will be $2.50. Send postoffice order or draft on New York or Pittsburgh. Address, THEODORE L. FLOOD, Meadville, Pa. THE CHAUTAUQUAN. A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE. VOL. II. JUNE, 1882. No. 9. Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle. bility; and its original connection with feudal tenure, if not President, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. Superintendent of Instruction, J. H. Vincent, D. D., Plainfield, N. J. General Secretary, Albert M. Martin, Pittsburgh, Pa. Office Secretary, Miss Kate F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. Counselors, Lyman Abbott, D. D.; J. M. Gibson, D. D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D. D.; W. C. Wilkinson, D. D. REQUIRED READING. MOSAICS OF HISTORY. IX. CHIVALRY AND THE CRUSADES. The rich East blooms fragrant before us; All fairy-land beckons us forth; We must follow the crane in her flight o'er the main, From the posts and the moors of the North. Our sires in the youth of the nations Swept westward through plunder and blood, Then shrink not and sigh not, fair ladies; The red cross which flames on each arm and each shield, -Charles Kingsley. CHIVALRY.-The best school of moral discipline which the Middle Ages afforded was the institution of chivalry. And whatever high magnanimous energy the love of liberty or religious zeal has ever imparted, was equaled by the exquisite sense of honor which this institution preserved. In the first state of chivalry it was closely connected with the military service of fiefs. A certain value of land was termed in England a knight's fee, or, in Normandy, feudum lovica, fief de haubert, from the coat of mail which it entitled and required the tenant to wear; a military tenure was said to be by service in chivalry. A younger brother, leaving the paternal estate, in which he took a slender share, might look to wealth and dignity in the service of a powerful count. Knighthood, which he could not claim as his legal right, became the object of his chief ambition. It raised him in the scale of society, equaling him in dress, in arms, and in title, to the rich landholders. As it was due to his merit, it did much more than equal him to those who had no pretensions but from wealth; and the territorial knights became by degrees ashamed of assuming the title until they could challenge it by real desert. This class of noble and gallant cavaliers, serving commonly for pay, but on the most honorable footing, became far more numerous through the crusades; a great epoch in the history of European society. During the period of the crusades, we find the institution of chivalry acquire its full vigor as an order of personal no effaced, became in a great measure forgotten in the splendor and dignity of the new form which it wore. The crusades, however, changed in more than one respect the character of chivalry. Before that epoch it appears to have had no particular reference to religion. But the purposes for which men bore arms in a crusade so sanctified their use, that chivalry acquired the character as much of a religious as a military institution. For many centuries, the recovery of the Holy Land was constantly at the heart of a brave and superstitious nobility; and every knight was supposed to pledge himself as occasion should arise, to that cause. Meanwhile, the defence of God's law against infidels was his primary and standing duty. A knight, whenever present at mass, held the point of his sword before him to signify his readiness to support it. The candidate passed nights in prayer among priests in a church; he received the sacraments; he entered into a bath, and was clad with a white robe, in allusion to the presumed purification of his life; his sword was solemnly blessed; everything, in short, was contrived to identify his new condition with the defence of religion, or at least with that of the church. There were, however, excellences of a very high class which it equally encouraged. In the books professedly written to lay down the duties of knighthood, they appear to spread over the whole compass of human obligations. Valor, loyalty, courtesy, munificence, formed collectively the character of an accomplished knight, so far as was displayed in the ordinary tenor of his life, reflecting these virtues as an unsullied mirror. Yet something more was required for the perfect idea of chivalry, and enjoined by its principles; an active sense of justice, an ardent indignation against wrong, a determination of courage to its best end, the prevention or redress of injury. The characteristic virtues of chivalry bear so much resemblance to those which Eastern writers of the same period extol, that I am a little disposed to suspect Europe of having derived some improvement from imitation of Asia. Though the crusades began in abhorrence of infidels, this sentiment wore off in some degree before their cessation; and the regular intercourse of commerce, sometimes of alliance, between the Christians of Palestine and the Saracens, must have removed part of the prejudice, while experience of their enemy's courage and generosity in war would with these gallant knights serve to lighten the remainder. Excepting that romantic gallantry toward women, which their customs would not admit, the Mohammedan chieftains were abundantly qualified to fulfill the duties of European chivalry. The license of times so imperfectly civilized could not be supposed to yield to institutions which, like those of religion, fell prodigously short in their practical result of the reformation which they were designed to work. An undue thirst for military renown was a fault that chivalry must have nourished; and the love of war, sufficiently pernicious in any shape, was more founded on personal feelings of honor, and less on public spirit, than in |