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writers.-Frigidus. "In cold blood," i. e. deliberately. Horace, by playing on the words ardentem frigidus, wouid show, remarks Francis, that he did not believe the story, and told it as one of the traditions which poets may use without being obliged to vouch for the truth of them. The pleasantry continues when he says, it is murder to hinder a poet from killing himself.-467. Idem facit occidenti. "Does the same thing with one that kills him," i. e. does the same as kill him. Occidenti is put by a Græcism for cum occidente, or, more elegantly, ac occidens.-468. Nec semel hoc fecit. "Neither is it the first time that he has acted thus.” i. e. he has done this before and will do it again.-469. Homo. "A reasonable being," i. e. a person of sane mind. 470. Cur versus factitet. "Why he is all the time making verses."-Utrum minxerit in patrios cineres. “Whether he has defiled his fathers's ashes." The dead and their graves were ever held sacred and inviolable among all nations, especially those of near relations. The meaning then of the whole clause will be this: Whether he has been visited with madness from heaven for some great enormity, or not, one thing at least is certain, that he is quite beside himself and perfectly insane.-471. An triste bidental moverit incestus. "Or with unhallowed hands has disturbed some sad bidental." The bidental was a place that had been struck with lightning, and afterwards expiated by the erection of an altar, and the sacrifice of sheep, hostiis bidentibus; from which last circumstance it took its name. The removal or disturbance of this sacred monument was deemed sacrilege, and the very attempt a supposed judgment from heaven, as a punishment for some heavy crime.

EXCURSUS.

HISTORY OF THE GREEK DRAMA.

For the origin of the Grecian Drama we must go back to the annual festivals, which, from very remote times, the village communities were wont to celebrate at the conclusion of harvest and vintage. (Aristot. Eth. Nic. 9. 9.-Horat. Epist. 1. 139. seqq.) On these occasions the peasantry enjoyed periodic relaxation from their labours, and offered grateful sacrifices to their gods. Among these gods Bacchus was a chief object of veneration, as the inventor of wine and the joint patron, with Ceres, of agricul ture. He appears also to have been typical of the first generating principle. (Museum Criticum, vol. 2. p. 70.) At these meetings that fondness for poetry and poetic recitation, ever peculiarly strong among the Greeks, combined with their keen relish for joke and raillery, naturally introduced two kinds of extemporaneous effusions: the one, vynddv kaì ¿yxwμiaotikòr, consisted of hymns addressed immediately to Bacchus: the other, yedo16τερον Kai lapbilov, was the offspring of wit and wine, ludicrous and satirical, interspersed with mutual jest and sarcasm. (Compare Epist. 2. 1. 146.) The loftier and more poetical song was afterwards called dioúpapbos, (Mus. Crit. vol. 2. p. 70. seqq.) a term probably derived from some ancient title of Bacchus; as the Pean took its name from Пaiàv, an early appellation of Apollo. From these rude compositions sprang the splendid Drama of the Greeks: the Dithyramb gave birth to Tragedy, the other to Comedy.

(Compare Aristotle, Poet. 4. 14.) In ascribing the origin of the Drama to these simple choruses, all scholars seem to agree. With respect to its subsequent progress and developement, down to the time of Eschylus, considerable difference of opinion exists; as might reasonably be expected on a subject known only from a few obscure notices scattered throughout the extant works of the ancients, and those notices frequently varying and contradictory. After a careful collation of the several classic passages bearing on the question, and an examination of what has been advanced by modern critics, the following account seems to come nearest the truth, as being consistent and probable. (Theatre of the Greeks, 2d. ed. p. 101. seqq.) In the first rise of the Bacchic festivals, the peasants themselves used promiscuously to pour forth their own unpolished and extemporaneous strains. Afterwards, the more skilful performers were selected and formed into a chorus, which, with the accompaniment of the pipe, sang verses pre-composed by the Dithyrambic poets. These poets at the outset were, like the chorus, simple peasants, distinguished above their fellow-labourers by their natural and uncultivated talent for versifying; who, against these festive occasions, used to provide the chorus with a hymn. They in time became a numerous and peculiar body. Emulation was ex cited, contests between the choruses of neighbouring districts speedily arose, and an ox was assigned as the prize of superior skill. (Pindar, Ol. 13. 24. seqq. Compare the scholiast, ad loc.) The Dithyrambic chorus was also called Cyclian (Kukλtos) from their dancing in a ring round the altar of Bacchus, whilst they sang the hymn. (Bentley, Phal. p. 80.Schol. Pindar, Ol. 13. 26.—Schol. Eschin, vol. 3. p. 722. ed. Reiske.) This exhibition never suffered any material change, but always formed an important part of the Dionysian festival, and was performed by a chorus of fifty men. (Simonides, Epigr. 76.) In later ages, when a regular theatre was erected, a portion of it, called the opxnorpa, or dancing-space, was set apart for the performance of the song and dance, round the Ovpéλn, or altar. (Mus. Crit. vol. 2. p. 74.)

The next advance in the developement of the Drama was the invention of the Satyric chorus. (Schneider, de Orig. Trag. p. 7. seqq.) At what period and by whom this chorus was introduced are points of utter uncertainty. Wine and merriment probably first suggested the idea of imitating, in frolic, the supposed appearance of the Satyrs, by fixing horns on the head, and covering the body with a goat's skin. The manners of these sportive beings would of course be adopted along with the guise, while jest and sarcasm were bandied about. Be this as it may, a chorus of Satyrs was by some means formed, and thenceforth became an established accompaniment of the Bacchic festival. It is now that we first discover something of a dramatic nature. The singers of the dithyramb were mere choristers; they assumed no character, and exhibited no imitation. The performers in the new chorus had a part to sustain: they were to appear as Satyrs, and represent the character of those gamesome deities. Hence the duties of this chorus were two-fold. As personating the attendants of Bacchus and in conformity with the custom at his festivals, they sang the praises of the god; and next they poured forth their ludicrous effusions, which, to a certain degree, were of a dramatic nature, but uttered without system or order, just as the ideas suggested themselves to each performer. These aurooxediáopara were accompanied with dancing, gesticulation and grimace; and the whole bore a closer resemblance to a wild kind of ballet, than to any other modern performance. This rude species of Drama was afterwards called rpayıdía (i. e. rpdyov 481⁄2), either from the goat-skin dress of the performers or, what is

more probable, from the goat which was assigned as the prize to the cleverest wit and nimblest dancer in the chorus.

Thespis, a native of Icaria, an Athenian village, was the author of the third stage in the progress of the Drama, by adding an actor distinct from the chorus. When the performers, after singing the Bacchic hymn, were beginning to flag in the extemporal bursts of Satyric jest and gambol which succeeded, Thespis himself used to come forward, and from an elevated stand exhibit, in gesticulated narration, some mythological story. When this was ended, the chorus again commenced their performance. (Diog. Laert. Vit. Plat. 66.) These dramatic recitations encroached upon the extemporal exhibitions of the chorus, and finally occupied their place. Besides the addition of an actor, Thespis first gave the character of a distinct profession to this species of entertainment. He organised a regular chorus, which he assiduously trained in all the niceties of the art, but especially in dancing. (Athenæus, 1. 22. -Aristoph. Vesp. 1470.) With this band of performers he is said to have strolled about from village to village directing his route by the succession of the several local festivals, and exhibiting his novel invention upon the waggon, which conveyed the members and apparatus of his corps dramatique. Thespis is generally considered to have been the inventor of the Drama. Of Tragedy, however, properly so called, he does not appear to have had any idea. The dramatic recitations which he introduced were probably confined to Bacchus and his adventures; and the whole performance was little elevated above the levity of the Satyric extemporalia, which these monologues had superseded.

Up to this period, the performance called rpayčia had more the semblance of Comedy than of its own subsequent and perfect form. The honour of introducing Tragedy, in its later acceptation, was reserved for Phrynicus, a scholar of Thespis, who began to exhibit B. C. 511. the year before the expulsion of the Pisistratida. Phrynicus dropped the light and ludicrous cast of the original Drama, and, dismissing Bacchus and the Satyrs, formed his plays from the more grave and elevated events recorded in the mythology and history of the country. (Plutarch. Symp. Quæst. 1. 1.) The change thus produced in the tone of the Drama constitutes its fourth form. Much, however, yet remained to be done. The choral odes, with the accompanying dances, still composed the principal part of the performance; and the loose, disjointed monologues of the single actor were far removed from that unity of plot and connection of dialogue which subsequent improvements produced.

The fifth form of Tragedy owed its origin to Eschylus. He added a second actor to the locutor of Thespis and Phrynicus, and thus introduced the dialogue. He abridged the immoderate length of the choral odes, making them subservient to the main interest of the plot, and expanded the short episodes into scenes of competent extent. To these improvements in the economy of the Drama, he added the decorations of art in its exhibition. A regular stage (Vitruv. præf. libr. 7.), with appropriate scenery, was erected; the performers were furnished with becoming dresses, and raised to the stature of the heroes represented, by the thick-soled cothurnus; whilst the face was brought to the heroic cast by a mask of proportionate size, and strongly marked character, which was also so contrived as to give power and distinctness to the voice. He paid great attention to the choral dances, and invented seve ral figure-dances himself. Among his other improvements is mentioned

the introduction of a practice, which subsequently became established as a fixed and essential rule, the removal of all deeds of bloodshed and murder from public view. In short, so many and so important were the alterations and additions of Eschylus, that he was considered by the Athenians as the Father of Tragedy. (Philost. Vit. Apoll. 6. 11.) To Eschylus succeeded Sophocles, who put the finishing hand to the improvement of the Drama. He shortened the choral songs in proportion to the dialogue, improved the rhythm, introduced a third actor, a more laboured complication of the plot, a greater multiplicity of incidents, and a more complete unfolding of them, a more steady method of dwelling on all the points of an action, and of bringing out the more decisive ones with greater stage effect.

INDEX

OF

PROPER NAMES.

Carm. denotes the Odes, and Serm. the Satires. The other abbreviations
need no explanation.

Academi silvæ Epist. ii. 2. 45.
Accius aufert famam senis alti
Epist. ii. 1. 56. Acci tragici nil
mutat Lucilius? Serm. i. 10. 35.
nobiles trimetri Epist. ad Pis. 258.
Achæmenes dives Carm. ii. 12. 21.
Achæmenius Achæmenium cos-
tum Carm. iii. 1. 44. Achæmenia
nardo Epod. 13. 12.

Achaicus ignis Carm. i. 15. 35.
Achaico curru Carm. iv. 3. 5.

Acheron. Acheronta perrupit
Herculeus labor Carm. i. 3. 36.
Quirinus fugit Carm. iii. 3. 16.

Acherontia. Acherontiæ celsa
nidus Carm. iii. 4. 14.

Achilles (Phthius.) Troja prope
altæ victor Carm. iv. 6. 4. iratus
Epist. ii. 2. 42. Achillei classis ira-
cunda Carm. i. 15. 34. pervicacis ad
pedes rex (Priamus) procidit Epod.
17.14. Achillem insolentem Carm.
ii. 4. 4. clarum cita mors abstulit
Carm. ii. 16. 29. animosum Serm.
i. 7. 12. honoratum Epist. ad Pis.
120. Achille Serm. ii. 3. 193.

Achivus. Achivi Epist. i. 2. 14.
Achivos pugnaces Carm. iii. 3. 27.
Achivis servatis Serm. ii. 3. 194.
unctis Epist. ii. 1.33. flammis Carm.
iv. 6. 18.

Acrisius virginis abditæ custos
pavidus Carm. iii. 16. 5.

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Adria vid. Hadria.

Aeacus. Aeaci genus Carm. iii.
19. 3. Aeacum vidimus judicantem
Carm. ii. 13. 22. ereptum Stygüs
fluctibus Carm. iv. 8. 25.

Aegaeus. Aegæum mare Epist
i. 11. 16. in Aegao patenti Carm.
ii. 16. 1. Aegæos tumultus Carm.
iii. 29. 63.

Aemilius. Aemilium ludumEpist.
ad Pis. 32.

Aeneas pius Carm. iv. 7. 15.
Aeneae rebus Carm. iv. 6.23. Aenea
ab alto demissum genus Serm. ii. 5.
63.

Aeolides Sisyphus Carm. ii. 14.20.
Aeolius. Aeolia puella (Sappho)
Aeolium carmen
Carm. iv. 9. 12.
Carm. iii. 30. 13. Carm. iv. 3. 12.
Aeoliis fidibus Carm. ii. 13. 24.

Aeschylus personæ pallæque re-
pertor honestæ Epist. ad Pis. 279.
eum imitati sunt Latini Epist. ii. 1.

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