Thus, some decades ago, ceremonies were the fashion in social intercourse. In the fourth place, moral training must form a part of education. It is not enough that a man be fitted for any end, but he must also acquire the disposition to choose only good ends. Good ends are those which are necessarily approved by everyone, and which may at the same time be the aim of everyone.

13. Man may be either broken in, trained, and mechanically taught, or he may be really enlightened. Horses and dogs are broken in, and man, too, may be broken in. But it is not enough that children should be merely broken in; it is eminently important that they learn to think. That leads to the principle from which all transactions proceed. Thus we see that a real education involves a great deal. But as a rule, in private education, the fourth and most important point is still too much neglected, for children are substantially educated in such a way that moral training is left to the preacher. And yet how infinitely important it is that children be taught from youth up to detest vice, not merely on the ground that God has forbidden it, but because it is in itself detestable.

14. Experimental schools must be established before we can establish normal schools. Education and instruction must not be merely mechanical; they must be based on fixed principles. Yet education must be not entirely theoretical, but at the same time, in a certain sense, mechanical.

People commonly imagine that experiments in education. are not necessary, and that we can judge from our reason whether anything is good or not. But this is a great mistake, and experience teaches that the results of our experiments are often entirely different from what we expected. Thus we see that, since we must be guided by experiments, no one generation can set forth a complete scheme of educa

15. Education is either private or public. The latter is concerned only with instruction, and this can always remain. public. The practice of what is taught is left to private education. A complete public education is one which unites instruction and moral culture. Its aim is to promote a good private education.

Education in the home is conducted either by the parents themselves, or, should the parents not have the time, aptitude, or inclination, by others who are paid to assist them. But in education carried on by these assistants, one very great difficulty arises, namely, the division of authority between parent and tutor. The child must obey the regulations of his teacher, and at the same time follow the whims of his parents. The only way out of this difficulty is for parents to surrender entirely their authority to the tutor.

16. How far, then, has private education an advantage over public education, or vice versa? In general it seems to me that, not merely for the development of ability but also for the cultivation of civic character, public education is to be preferred. Private education, in many cases, not only fosters family failings, but transmits them to the new generation.

17. One of the greatest problems of education is how to unite submission to legal restraint with the exercise of freewill. For restraint is necessary! How am I to develop freedom in the presence of restraint? I am to accustom my pupil to endure a restraint of his freedom, and at the same time I am to guide him to use his freedom aright. Without this all education is merely mechanical, and the child, when his education is over, does not know how to make a proper use of his freedom. He must be made to feel early the inevitable opposition of society, that he may learn the difficulty of supporting himself, enduring privation, and acquiring what is necessary to make him independent.

XXIII. JOHN HENRY PESTALOZZI.

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.

This great educational reformer, the greatest perhaps since the Reformation of the sixteenth century, was born January 12, 1746, in the beautiful town of Zürich. He was lacking in administrative ability, but possessed a deep love and noble enthusiasm for humanity. Intellectual force was subordinate in him to imagination and sensibility. He engaged in several famous educational experiments, all which, in spite of their failure, were fruitful in blessings to mankind. It was through his efforts, unselfish and self-sacrificing, that what was best in educational theory up to his time obtained permanent recognition. He gave a new impulse to popular education, from which he expected great improvement in the moral, intellectual, and social condition of Europe.

Having failed as a farmer, Pestalozzi turned his farm, to which he had given the name of Neuhof, into an industrial school for the poor. He soon had fifty children under his charge to provide for. His plan was to combine study with remunerative labor; but after five years the school was closed in 1780, leaving him heavily involved in debt, but greatly enriched in educational experience.

The next few years were devoted chiefly to authorship as a means of earning a livelihood. He turned his pedagogical studies and experience to good account. "The Evening Hour of a Hermit," an educational treatise in the form of aphorisms, appeared in 1780. In 1782 he edited for a few

months the Swiss News, a weekly newspaper, in which from time to time he touched upon educational matters. In 1787 he published the fourth and last volume of "Leonard and Gertrude," an educational novel descriptive of humble scenes and conditions in his native land.

In 1798, upon the recommendation of the Swiss directors, Pestalozzi took charge of nearly a hundred destitute and homeless children at Stanz. They composed a heterogeneous mass that would have been appalling to any one with less enthusiasm than Pestalozzi. With almost superhuman zeal he addressed himself to the work of improving their condition, and in the space of a few months wrought so great a change in them that they no longer seemed the same beings. But in less than a year the school was broken up by the return of the French army, which had previously devastated the district. In 1799 Pestalozzi wrote a letter to his friend Gessner, in which he gave a detailed account of the work at Stanz. This letter, a large part of which follows this sketch, is interesting for the light it throws on the character and pedagogy of Pestalozzi.

In 1805 he opened a school at Yverdun, where he attained his greatest triumphs. He achieved a European reputation, and kings and philosophers united in showing him regard. Yverdun became a place of pilgrimage for philanthropists and educators from all parts of Europe. For a time the progress, happiness, and high moral tone of its pupils made the school at once a model and an inspiration in education; but at length in 1825 internal dissension brought the work to an ignominious end. The following year Pestalozzi published "The Song of the Swan," in which he gave a clear statement of his educational labors and principles. He died February 17, 1827.

The following extracts present Pestalozzi's educational system with clearness and fulness. The following summary

however, prepared by his biographer Morf, will be found very helpful:

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1. Sense-impression is the foundation of instruction. “2. Language must be connected with sense-impression. "3. The time for learning is not the time for judgment and criticism.

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4. In each branch instruction must begin with the simplest elements, and proceed gradually by following the child's developments; that is, by a series of steps which are psychologically connected.

“5. A pause must be made at each stage of the instruction sufficiently long for the child to get the new matter thoroughly into his grasp and under his control.

"6. Teaching must follow the path of development, and not that of dogmatic exposition

“7. The individuality of the pupil must be sacred for the teacher.

"8. The chief aim of elementary instruction is not to furnish the child with knowledge and talents, but to develop and increase the powers of his mind.

“9. To knowledge must be joined power; to what is known, the ability to turn it to account

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10. The relations between master and pupil, especially so far as discipline is concerned, must be established and regulated by love.

"II. Instruction must be subordinated to the higher end of education."

SELECTIONS FROM VARIOUS WRITINGS OF PESTALOZZI.

I. DIARY, 1774.

No education would be worth a jot that resulted in a loss of manliness and lightness of heart. So long as there is joy

PAINTER PED. Ess.- 23