LESSONS IN FRENCH.-VII. SECTION I.-FRENCH PRONUNCIATION (continued). III. NAME AND SOUND OF THE VOWELS. 43. O, o.-The o has, in French, three different sounds: short, as in cob; broad and prolonged, as in cord; and full, as in coat. The The short sound, as in cob, is the most common one. o has a broad and prolonged sound, as in cord, when followed by an r, thus-castor, encore, etc. The full sound, as in coat, is always given to the o when it has a circumflex accent over it. It is also full when final, as in coco, loto, etc., and when followed by a mute consonant, as in mot, dos, etc. EXAMPLES OF THE SHORT SOUND. FRENCH. PRONUN. ENGLISH. FRENCH. PRONUN. Gobelet Gob'-lay Locale Lo-kal Mode Mod Morale Mo-ral ENGLISH. Cup. Local. Fashion. Moral. 45. Û, Û CIRCUMFLEX.—Name, U, t; sound, like the letter in the English word brunette. It must be acknowledged, however, that the English letter u does not represent the correct sound of the French u, which is a combination of sounds not recognised in our language. Still, we must use it as the representative of the sound of the French u, for the want of a better one. The following rule has also been given, and found useful:The sound of the French u is based upon that of English e. Pronounce the English letter e as naturally as possible, observing at the same time the position of the internal organs of the mouth. Now keep these organs in the same position as nearly as possible, protrude the lips as if to whistle, drawing them nearly together at the same time, and then try to pronounce the English e again, which will give you the correct sound of the French Practise often aloud, according to the directions of this rule, crown your efforts. The rule has never yet The correct sound of the French us in this od by the patient, persevering, and deter and gues FRENCH. SECTION XIV.-PLAN OF THE EXERCISES IN COMPOSING Hitherto the student has been occupied exclusively in acquiring facts, forms, and principles, and in translating, by the aid of these, French into English, and again, English into French. Following still the plan of the work, let him now undertake the higher business of endeavouring to compose in French. With this intent, let him take some of the wordgiven for this purpose in the following lists, and seek to incorporate them in sentences entirely his own. The words taken from the lists are to be used merely as things suggestive of thought. The form which, in any given case, the sentence may assume, should be determined by the models found in the sections preceding; for every sentence which the pupil has once mastered in the regular course of the sections, is, or should be, to him, a model on which he may at pleasure build other constructions of his own. Indeed, this constructing sentences according to models that is, shaping one's thoughts according to the forms and idioms peculiar to a foreign tongue-is the true and only secret of speaking and writing that language well. The pupil, therefore, as he passes along in the ordinary course of the sections, should frequently be found applying his knowledge in the way of actually composing independent sentences; and thus he will soon acquire a facility and accuracy in the language, which is hardly otherwise attainable at all. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN COMPOSING. The words in the following lists are given as suggestive of thought. In conducting the exercise a particular word is selected, as relieur (bookbinder), and the student is required to compose a French sentence containing this term. He is duly notified that he is at liberty to take any thought suggested by the word, and to produce a sentence of any form found in any of the sections; regard being had all along to all the rules, notes, exceptions, etc., that may bear upon the case. Thus, adopting as a model the sentence, Votre marchand est bien obligeant (Sect. XVI., Résumé), or, Le Danois a-t-il quelques pommes? (Sect. XVII. 7), etc. etc., let him endeavour to produce others of the like kind. A little practice will render the exercise both easy and interesting. It will soon come to be easy to incorporate not only one, but two, three, or more of the words taken from the lists. 1. PROFESSIONS ET MÉTIERS.-PROFESSIONS AND TRADES. Acteur, m., actor. Apothicaire, m., apothecary. Artiste, m., artist. Aumonier, m., chaplain. Auteur, m., author. Blanchisseuse, f., washerwoman. Charretier, m., cartman. Drapier, m., draper. Eccl siastique, m, chrys man. Fruitière, f., fruit-woman. clock and watchmaker. Instituteur, m., institutrice, f., schoolmaster, mistress. Imprimeur, m., printer. Joaillier, m., jeweller. Maron, m., mason, bricklayer. Marechal, m., blacksmith, Musicien, m., musician. Naturaliste, m., naturalist. Orateur, m., orator. Orfevre, m., gold and silver smith. | Pape, m., pope. Patre, m., shepherd, herdsman. Perruquier, m., hairdresser. Philosophe, m., philosopher. Poissonnier, m., poissonnière, f, fishmonger. Predicateur, m., preacher. Fripier, m., a dealer in old clothes. | Prêtre, m., priest, 2. The comparative of equality is expressed by aussi-que, es, or as much as, before an adjective, an adverb, or a pronoun. Aussi aimé que son frère, stantive. As much loved as his brother. Autant de crayons que de plumes, As many pencils as pons. 3. The comparative of superiority is expressed by plus-que, Fas de bonté que de jugement, More goodness than judgment. 1. Êtes-vous aussi content que votre frère? 2. Je suis aussi content que votre frère. 3. Votre père a-t-il autant de courage que de modestie? 4. Il a moins de modestie que de courage. 5. Le libraire a-t-il autant de manuscrits que d'estampes? 6. Il a plus de celles-ci que de ceux-là. 7. A-t-il autant d'amis que d'ennemis ? 8. Il a plus de ceux-ci que de ceux-là. 9. A-t-il autant de pain que de fromage? 10. Il a tout autant de celuici que de celui-là. 11. Le maréchal a-t-il plus de chevaux que votre frère ? 12. Il en a plus que mon père et plus que mon frère. 13. N'avez-vous pas froid? 14. Non, Monsieur, je n'ai pas froid, j'ai très chaud. 15. Avez-vous deux manteaux de drap? 16. J'en ai un de drap et un de velours bleu. 17. N'avezvous pas plus de verres que d'assiettes? 18. Nous en avons davantage.* 19. Le maréchal a-t-il plus de fer que d'acier? 20. Il n'a pas autant de celui-ci que de celui-là. 21. Il a moins de celui-ci que de celui-là. 22. Les Hollandais ont-ils de beaux jardins? 23. Leurs jardins sont très beaux. 24. Les jardins des Italiens sont plus beaux que ceux des Espagnols. EXERCISE 26. 2. I am not so 1. Are you more attentive than your sister? Autant de que de, as much, or as many-as, before a sub- attentive as your brother. 3. Have you more courage than my brother? 4. I have quite as much. 5. Has the blacksmith as much money as iron ? 6. He has more of the latter than of the former. (Sect. VIII. 5.) 7. Has he more modesty than the Spaniard? 8. He has more. 9. He has more than your friend's sister. 10. Are you not cold, Sir? 11. No, Sir, but I am afraid and sleepy. 12. Has the Dutchman more cheese than the Italian? 13. He has more cheese and more money. 14. Have you as much English silk as Italian silk? 15. I have more of this than of that. 16. Who has more friends than the Spaniard? 17. Your friend has more. 18. Has the Spaniard as much of 20. Have we more silk cloaks than cloth cloaks? 19. He has less of mine than of his. your money as of his ? have more of these than of those. 21. We 22. Have you good cloaks? 23. Yes, Sir, I have good cloaks, good hats, and good leather shoes. 24. Have you more plates than dishes? 25. I have not more plates than dishes, but I have more glasses than plates. 26. Are you not very cold? 27. No, Sir, I am neither cold nor warm. 28. Has your carpenter wood? 29. Yes, Sir, he has wood, money, cheese, and meat. 30. Who has more money than the carpenter? 31. The Dutchman has more. 32. Who has more engravings than books? 33. The bookseller has more of these than of those. 34. Are you as attentive as your friend? 35. I am more attentive than my friend. 4. The comparative of inferiority is expressed by pas si; pas asi; moins que, not so; not so; less-than, before an adjective, an adverb, or a personal pronoun. Vous n'êtes pas si grand que votre You are not so tall as your sister. I est moins poli que son cousin, He is less polite than his cousin. Pas tant de; pas autant de; moins de que de, not so much, or so many; less; fewer than, before a substantive, a demonstrative, or possessive pronoun. Il n'a pas tant de courage que de He has not so much courage as Jen ai tout autant que vous, I have quite as many as you. Arez-vous autant de livres anglais, Have you as many English books as Italian books? I have just as many. J'ai autant de ceux-ci que de I have as many of these as of those. ceux-là. Il est aussi heureux que vous. He is as happy as you. Avez-vous plus d'assiettes que de Have you more plates than dishes? plate? J'ai plus de ceux-ci que de ceux-là. fr res? Le Français a-t-il moins de légumes que de fruits? La moins de livres que de manu scrits. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-IV. BY parsing is meant the telling of the parts (pars, Latin, a part) I have more of these than of those. than fruits? He has fewer books than manuscripts. Davantage means more. It can never be placed before a noun. It may be used instead of plus at the end of a sentence. The great difficulty with young writers is to find materials. In consequence, historical subjects are most suited to them. for But in historical subjects, mere copying is easy, and hence it is sly apt to be substituted for original composition. It is, then, danthe gerous to entrust boys with mere historical subjects. As, dered however, I write for young men and young women, I shall parsing, supply historical subjects; and, in order that the source of in the information may be accessible to all my scholars, I shall take an already some of these subjects, at least at the first, from the Bible. successive And narrative being the easiest form of composition, I shall sent. I will begin with supplying you with subjects for short narratives. Here, then, is your first N parts of speech, I NATE. dattery. and give as full an Po an, which has the HISTORICAL THEME. Now this is the method you are to observe. Read carefully, and as often as necessary, the account given in the commencement of the book Genesis of the creation of the universe. When you have impressed the record on your mind, close the Bible, and, taking slate and pencil, write down as much as possible in your own words, and in simple sentences, the substance of the account. Look over what you have written and correct it. Having corrected it according to the best of your own judgment, compare it with the original. Compare it first in relation to the facts; if in respect to the facts your report is not correct, make it correct. Compare it next in regard to the spelling, and correct your spelling by the spelling of the Bible. Again compare it as to the words. You have one word, the Bible has another. If your word is positively inaccurate, strike it out, and put in its place the scriptural word. But a deviation in word on your part is desirable rather than not, for it shows that you have comprehended the meaning of the passage, and that you possess, instead of a mere slavish imitation, a power of reproduction which may in time enable you to write truly original compositions. If, therefore, your word is only somewhat less appropriate than the word in the sacred page, let it stand; but at the same time ask yourself, and endeavour to ascertain, why your word is less suitable. Should you, as you can hardly fail to do, at least as your mind grows and your taste improves, meet in the Scriptures with forms of expression which seem to you specially happy or specially forcible, transcribe them into a little note-book, kept in the pocket, ever at hand to receive memoranda, or things deserving to be remembered, things requiring explanation, things illustrative of important truth, etc.; and having transcribed them, look at them from time to time until you have made them permanently your own. is what may be called domestic history, out of which you like kind. nt supply of useful and interesting materials. A little practice I mean the occurrences and events of your teresting. It will sheir humblest details. Here you may find one, but two, three, or as a object to the verb dislikes. The FOR PARSING. The language of truth is plain. thinking persons deepest. PRONUN. bune a short composition out of ENGLISH. Unity. m 1. PROFESSIONS ET MOMESTIC THEME. Acteur, m., actor. Apothicaire, m., apothecary. Artiste, m., artist. Aumonier, m., chaplain. Therter Bijoutier, m., jeweller. history during a day. rough the exercises in parsing. By domestic history arbonnier, m., coalman. Blanchisseuse, f., washerwoman. the end of each successive themes enough. Take you may choose as your given you to parse, and well as you can. ew-never mind that your At first, butcher. deuse, f., embroiderer. arlatan, m., quack. r mind that your thoughts the times at which you left there, m., vicar. My own audronnier, m., coppersmith. the time you rose, the meals cription would be right said, etc., until the day' the r own thoughts. n. Composition is the such a subject, unworthy of you ls for composition, if 4. Suppose that the write is this proposi virtues. : the import of the ouvreur, m., slater, tiler. Dentiste, m., dentist. Drapier, m., draper. 's dutie may narrate no error; correct all mistak every res recom TY Ecclésiastique, m., clergyman. Evêque, m., bishop. Faucheur, m., mower. walk. me alone for a while; it is r sounds. It is good sense ct English that I want to lead purpose practice in prose is Fripier, m., a dealer in old clothes. earlier efforts, and comparing together your power of execution as it was at different periods. It may be desirable to show you in an example how an humble theme may be well treated in composition. I take for the purpose one of Pestalozzi's "Paternal Instructions." It is en the domestic business of BAKING. Baking, like all cooking, is a fruit of civilisation. The savage knows of no preparation for his food; he eats everything raw, like the brutes; and accordingly he eats it like them, with brutal greediness. A proper diet is possible only when the food is prepared by art. Baking, therefore, and every other sort of cooking, is a far more important business than at first sight it appears to be. By baking we procure the most wholesome of all nutriment-that bread which, as a commor necessary of life, we daily ask of God in the most comprehensive of all prayers. It may be useful to beginners to see the same thought expressed in simple propositions-that is, propositions or sentences, not having more than one subject and one object. BAKING.-The same in simple sentences. In a Baking is a fruit of civilisation. Indeed, all cooking is a fruit of civilisation. The savage knows of no preparation for his food. The savage eats everything raw. The brutes eat everything raw. The brutes also eat with greediness. With similar greediness does the savage take his food. Art may be employed in preparing food. proper diet food is prepared by art. Baking, therefore, is an important business. Indeed, cooking in general is an important business. Cooking is thought to be important. Still more important in reality is baking. By baking we procure the most wholesome of all nutriment. By baking we obtain bread. Bread is a common necessary of life. We daily ask bread of God. We ask bread of God in the most comprehensive of all prayers. LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-VII. OUR readers, who have accompanied us thus far in our lessons in Penmanship, finding that they are now beginning to form letters composed of the bottom-turn, the top-turn, and the topand-bottom turn, with comparative ease, may be wishing to hasten on a little more rapidly, and to be trying their hand at writing capitals as well as the small letters. This is a laudable wish, without doubt, and one which will be gratified in due time; but, for the present, our learners must be content to advance slowly, remembering that slow progress is the surest and safest method of attaining proficiency in any art, as the pupil is thereby saved from the danger of hurrying on from one point to another, for the sake of novelty, before he is thoroughly grounded in the rudiments of the art that he is seeking to acquire. Many who now find themselves able to make a thick down-stroke of uniform breadth throughout, such as is found in the letter 1, would lose much of the facility with which they are now imi tating the copies we have placed before them, if they tried to copy capital letters at this stage of their instruction. The reason is this, that the letters which the pupil has hitherto been copying consist, for the most part, of a straight stroke, while there is not a single capital letter that is not formed of sweeping curves, which cannot be made in a sufficiently graceful manner, unless the learner has obtained that pliancy of wrist, freedom of execution, and command over his pen, which can only be acquired by constant practice on the simpler letters. If he were now to try to trace out the curves, that form the letter A he would find that his hand would begin to shake, and his down-stroke be crooked and ragged throughout, owing to the change of direction in which he is compelled to turn his pen; and when he returned to the easier letters, he would further find that the check he has received had rendered him less able to write letters that he had previously formed with ease. For this reason we continue our copies in large text, as exhibited above. LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-VII. ABRIDGED METHODS OF MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION (continued). 6. To divide by 10, or any power of 10. If the dividend have more ciphers for its right-hand figures than occur in the power of 10 by which it is to be divided, we need only take away from it the number of ciphers in the divisor to obtain the quotient. Thus, 873000 divided by 100 and 1000 But suppose that respectively, gives quotients 8730 and 873. the dividend has no ciphers for its right-hand figures. Take, for instance, the case of 87346 divided by 100. Cut off the two right-hand figures-viz., 46-from the dividend; then 873 will be the quotient and 46 the remainder. This is evident by exhibiting the process analytically, thus: 87346 87300 + 46 = 873 x 100 + 46 : Therefore 873 is the quotient, and 46 the remainder. The same rule applies to dividing by any power of 10. 7. Next, suppose the divisor to be not a power of 10, but to have ciphers for its extreme right-hand figures; for instance, to divide 2764 by 300. There being two ciphers in 300, cut off the two right-hand figures-viz., 64-from the dividend, and divide the 27 by 3; this gives 9, which will be the quotient, and the 64 will be the remainder. This is evident by exhibiting the process analytically, thus :--- 2764 =2700+ 64 = 9 x 300 + 64 Therefore 9 is the quotient, and 64 the remainder. 300) 2964 9-264 remainder. 11. To multiply by 5.-Annex 0 to the multiplicand, and divide by 2. To divide by 5.-Multiply by 2 and cut off the last figure, half of which will be the remainder. To multiply by 15.--Annex 0, and to the result add its half. To divide by 15.-Multiply by 2, cut off the last figure, and divide by 3; prefix the remainder so obtained to the figure cut off; half the number so formed will be the true remainder. EXAMPLE. To divide 327 by 15: 21 quotient, Leaving 2 as remainder from 65. Putting this 2 before the figure cut off-viz., the 4-we get 24, which divided by 2 gives 12, the full remainder. To multiply by 75.-Annex two ciphers to the dividend, and subtract from it its fourth part. To divide by 75.-Multiply by 4, cut off two figures, and Place before the two figures cut off the remainder divide by 3. got by dividing by 3, and divide the number so obtained by 4; this will give the whole remainder. Thus, to divide 2351 by 75, we have 2351 4 3)94,04 31 for quotient, With remainder 1 from the 94. by 4 gives 26, the full remainder. To multiply by 125.-Annex three ciphers, and divide by 8. To divide by 125.-Multiply by 8, and cut off the three righthand figures. These three figures divided by 8 give the remainder, the other figures being the quotient. 8. In this last case there is no remainder after dividing 27 Prefixing this 1 to the 04 cut off, we have 104, which divided by 3. But suppose we have 2964 to divide by 300:Proceeding as before, cutting off the 64 and dividing 29 by 3, we get a quotient 9 and a remainder 2. But evidently this remainder is in reality 2 hundreds, or 200; and therefore, since 64 is also left over, the whole remainder will be 264. Hence, in this case, any remainder which is left must be prefixed to the figures cut off, in order to give the whole remainder. The process is exhibited analytically as follows: 2964 2900 + 64 9 x 300 + 264 4. How many vehicles at 70 pounds apiece, can you buy for 7350 pounds? 5. How many barrels will it take to pack 36800 pounds of pork, allowing 200 pounds to a barrel? 10. We do not go into a detailed explanation of the following artifices, which are often useful in performing calculations without writing, or in mental arithmetic, as it is called. The truth of them will readily be seen by any one who has mastered the previous processes, and their explanation will be a useful exercise for the student. The truth of these processes will be better understood after the learner has read the chapter on Fractions. 13. 785355. 17. 2876 175. 18. 8250 275. 12. To multiply by a number represented by any number of nines repeated. Annex as many ciphers to the multiplicand as there are nines in the multiplier, and from the number so formed subtract the original number. Thus, to find 49276 × 99 4927600 1. Work the following examples in multiplication: 1. 4791 × 99. | 2. 7301 × 999. 3. 6034 x 999. | 4. 463 × 9999. 13. To multiply in one line by a number expressed by tro figures. To the product of any figure in the multiplicand, multiplied by the units' figure of the multiplier, add the product got by multiplying the figure next on the right of the figure first mentioned by the figure in the tens' place of the multiplier. Write down the units' figure of the number obtained by this process, and carry on the other (or others) as in common multiplication. EXAMPLE. To multiply 5768 by 73 in one line : |