THE THRESHOLD OF MODERN METEOROLOGY As in this chapter we have brought the reader to the weather-map as the threshold of modern meteorology and in doing so have called attention to certain aspects of what may be called the philosophy of the subject, it will be convenient for us to complete our excursus by pointing out how the introduction of the weather-map led to a curious alienation of the experimental and theoretical physicists from the study of weather. In the earlier part of this chapter we have given some idea on the one hand of the introduction of new instruments and experiments in the laboratory and thereby the development of physical laws and principles, and on the other hand of the progress of observations, particularly with the barometer, thermometer and rain-gauge, and the importance of a meteorological library with its custodian for the compilation and co-ordination of observations which lead to the identification of the general circulation of the atmosphere, the primary foundation of the real science of meteorology. We have noted that the exponents of physics used the knowledge which they had acquired in the laboratory to illustrate such natural atmospheric processes as came within their cognisance. With that practice grew the impression that the avenue of progress for meteorology was along the line of new instruments and new experiments, that the compilation of observations except in response to questions suggested by experiment or theory was marking time, if not wasting it. Hence have come endless suggestions for improving the accuracy of observations on the ground that explanation would become easier as greater precision was secured. Pushed to an extreme the attitude of the instrument-designer means that if we are unable to comprehend the variations of the barometer ranging over an inch measured to the hundredth of an inch we shall see our way clearly if we measure the pressure to a ten-thousandth of an inch. So long as meteorological observations were those of a single observer there might be some encouragement to think that greater precision in the specification of physical processes was a possible avenue to solution; but when the weather-map came in and the daily features were presented by a large area of land and sea and not by a single point within the observation of the experimenter, the problem seemed to be withdrawn from the daily avocation of the laboratory altogether. Various efforts have been made from time to time to explain the variations of the barometric pressure on a physical basis by an appeal to the laws of gases which explain that, other things being equal, warm air is specifically lighter than cold air, or to Dalton's law that moist air is lighter than dry air. These attempted explanations are good examples of the habit of referring the atmosphere to the conditions which obtain in a laboratory where the specimens under investigation are enclosed and at rest, whereas the pressure at any point of the free air is related to the motion of the air as well as to its extension through the whole range of height. Specimens of air of all states with regard to moisture and temperature could be found to range over the whole gamut of the barometer. The determination is a dynamical as well as a thermal question. The warmest or the most moist specimen of air can have any pressure whatever if its environment is so arranged as to produce the necessary compression. Before therefore we embark upon the consideration of the cause of high pressure or low pressure we must be able to form an opinion as to the sequence of changes in the general circulation. On the other hand the compilers of observations and maps were profoundly conscious that the experiments and theories of the physical laboratories offered no real explanation even of the broadest features of the distribution of pressure and temperature, and that to plunge into the study of minute details, mathematical and physical, when the outlines were an unsolved riddle was equally a waste of time and energy. So there came about a sharp division, physicists on the one side, regarding the efforts of the observers and map-makers as quite unscientific and sometimes suggesting that competent mathematicians should be invited to take the matter up; and meteorologists on the other side, equally firmly convinced that to invite the mathematicians to solve a problem which they could not specify was the same sort of mistake as inviting Newton to solve the problem of the solar system without the previous assistance of Kepler's laws. So sharp has that division become that La Science Française, a work already quoted, prepared in 1915 by the French Ministry of Public Instruction and Fine Arts for the Exhibition at San Francisco, with an introduction by Lucien Poincaré, and with separate sections for no less than thirty-three sciences, has nothing to say about meteorology, and in a comprehensive series of bibliographies includes only one meteorological entry "Études sur le climat de la France" under the science of geography. The present chapter will, it is hoped, be some aid to making the real situation more apparent. For the effective study of meteorology there must be co-ordination between the physical side and the geographical side. Everybody is agreed that the laws applying to atmospheric processes are to be learned by a study of physics in the laboratory; at the same time the conditions under which those processes take place and produce our weather are not the conditions under which experiments are made in the laboratory. The problem cannot be presented for solution with any real hope of success until observations have disclosed to us sufficient evidence of the true structure of the general circulation of the atmosphere and its variations to enable us to make an effective mental picture of the atmospheric problem, just as Kepler's co-ordination made it possible to form a working mental picture of the solar system. The indispensable foundations of knowledge of the atmospheric system are the distribution of land and sea, the distribution of pressure and temperature and water-vapour; any hypothetical arrangement which ignores one or other of these fundamental conditions may be a most valuable exercise but it is not, strictly speaking, meteorology. CHAPTER IX METEOROLOGY AS AN INTERNATIONAL SCIENCE: THE METEOROLOGICAL LIBRARY Some Chiefs of Meteorological Services Algeria. Service Central Météorologique. [1873] F. Gonnessiat, A. Lasserre. Argentine. Oficina Meteorológica Central. B. A. Gould 1872-84, W. G. Davis 1885-1915, J. O. Wiggin 1915-. Australia. Separate observatories were founded at Parramatta 1821, Adelaide (Sir C. Todd 1872), Melbourne (Prof. Neumayer 1858, R. L. J. Ellery, P. Baracchi), Sydney 1859 (H. C. Russell), Hobart 1883 (H. C. Kingsmill), Perth 1896 (W. E. Cooke). In 1887 C. L. Wragge was appointed Government Meteorologist to organise a meteorological bureau for Queensland. The Commonwealth Meteorological Bureau was founded in 1906 and H. A. Hunt was appointed Commonwealth Meteorologist in the following year. Austria. Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik, Wien. Karl Kreil 1851-63, Karl Jelinek 1863–76, Julius Hann 1877-97, J. M. Pernter 1897-1908, W. Trabert 1908-15, J. P. Pircher 1916, F. M. Exner 1917–. Azores. Meteorological Service. F. A. Chaves 1893-. Belgium. Observatoire royal. A. Quetelet 1826-74, E. Quetelet (acting) 1874-76, J. C. Houzeau 1876-85, F. Folie 1885-98, Ch. Hooreman 1898–99, A. Lancaster 1899-1908, J. Vincent 1908-20, [Institut Royal Météorologique 1913] J. Jaumotte 1920-. Brazil. Central Meteorological Office. A. P. Pinheiro 1885-96, A. Silvado 1896-1909, H. Morize 1909–21, Sampaio Ferraz 1921-. Canada. Meteorological Office, Toronto. G. T. Kingston 1871-80, V. Carpmael 1880-94, F. Stupart 1894-. Chile. [1911] W. Knoche, C. Henriquez. China. Zi-ka-wei. M. Dechevrens, S.J., L. Froc, S.J., J. de Moidrey, S.J. Colombia. S. Sarasola, S.J. Czecho-Slovakia. R. Schneider. Denmark. Det Danske Meteorologiske Institut, Copenhagen. N. Hoffmeyer 1872-84, A. Paulsen 1884-1907, C. Ryder 1907-23, D. la Cour 1923-. Ecuador. L. G. Tufino. Egypt. H. G. Lyons, B. H. H. Wade, B. F. E. Keeling, H. E. Hurst, H. Knox Shaw. France. Observatoire: Le Verrier 1855-77. Bureau Central Météorologique: E. Mascart 1878-1907, C. A. Germany. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg: G. von Neumayer 1876–1903, D. Herz 1903-11, D. K. Behm 1911-19, H. Capelle 1919-. Meteorologisches Institut, Berlin: W. Mahlmann 1847-48, H. W. Dove 1848-78, T. A. Arndt and G. Hellmann (ad interim) 1878-85, W. von Bezold 1885-1907, G. Hellmann 1907-22, Hugo Hergesell, H. von Ficker 1923-. München: W. von Bezold 1878-85, C. Lang 1885-93, F. Erk 1893-1909, A. Schmauss 1909-. (Other establishments at Aachen, Bremen, Darmstadt, Dresden, Frankfurt, Karlsruhe, Stuttgart, Strassburg: H. Hergesell 1890-1914, K. Wegener and O. Stoll acting directors 1914-18.) Great Britain. Meteorological Dept. of the Board of Trade: R. FitzRoy (Superintendent) 1854-65, Babington 1865-67. Meteorological Office: R. H. Scott (Director) 1867-76. Meteorological Council 1876-1905. Meteorological Committee: W. N. Shaw 1905-19. Meteorological Office of the Air Ministry: Sir N. Shaw 1919-20 G. C. Simpson 1920-. Greece. Observatoire National Météorologique: 2nd order station 1847. Observatory: D. Eginitis 1890-. Holland. Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut, de Bilt. C. H. D. Buys Ballot 1854-89, M. Snellen 1889-1902, C. H. Wind 1902-05, E. van Everdingen 1905-. Hong Kong. The Observatory. W. Doberck 1883-1907, F. G. Figg 1907-12, T. F. Claxton 1912-. Iceland. 1920 Th. Thorkelsson. India. Imperial Meteorological Reporter: H. F. Blanford 1875-89, J. Eliot 1889-1903. Director General of Indian Observatories: G. T. Walker 1904-24, J. H. Field 1924-. Italy. R. Ufficio Centrale di Meteorologia e Geodinamica, Roma. P. Tacchini 1863-1900, L. Palazzo 1900-. Jamaica. Weather Service, Kingston. Maxwell Hall 1880-1920, J. F. Brennan 1920-. Japan. Central Meteorological Observatory, Tokio. K. Kobayashi 1891-99, K. Nakamura c. 1899-1922, Java. Nederlandsch Meteorologisch en Magnetisch Observatorium. P. A. Bergsma 1875-82, J. P. van der Mauritius. Royal Alfred Observatory. C. Meldrum 1862-96, T. F. Claxton 1896-1911, A. Walter 1911-26. New Zealand. Dominion Meteorological Office. D. C. Bates. Norway. Det Norske Meteorologiske Institut, Oslo. H. Mohn 1866-1913, A. S. Steen 1913-15, Th. Hesselberg 1916-. Poland. L. Gorczynski. |