into, as at Eton and Winchester, by the permission of marriage, which of course at once destroys the Collegiate life. Further, the scanty revenues, which, even in their present plundered state, might have sufficed to maintain a body of studious and self-denying men living in common, were of course found insufficient for the support of so many wives and families, nurseries and drawing-rooms, and all the comforts and conveniences of a modern parsonage. Hence, on the principle of "solvet Ecclesia," the result has been that the clerical Vicars have taken the charge of parishes; their simultaneous attendance at the Cathedral has been thus rendered impossible, and the notion fostered that the choral service is not a clerical, but a lay business. The whole matter of the inferior Cathedral Clergy has been most lucidly set forth by Mr. Jebb, in his work on the Choral Service, in which we hardly know which most to admire, the laborious zeal with which the learned author has inquired into the original nature and constitution of these foundations, or the indignant eloquence with which he has denounced their modern abuses and corruptions.

In the Cathedrals of the new foundation we see many traces of the secular age in which they were instituted. The provisions for godly discipline with which the old abounded were not likely to be imitated by the sacrilegious and rapacious tyrant by whom they were instituted. Hence the old and venerable names of Chancellor and Treasurer (in its old sense) are no more found, and the office of Precentor is discharged by a Minor Canon. This latter change marks very strongly their deterioration from the elder model. There the immediate director of Divine Service holds, after the Dean, the most eminent place in the Chapter : in the foundations of Henry VIII., he is one of the inferior Clergy, as though his functions were beneath the attention of the ruling body. In the new Cathedrals the Chapter consists of only one class, called Prebendaries; there are no dignities, only certain offices held in rotation, and having more of a temporal character; and the Archdeacons are not necessarily members of the Chapter. The Prebendaries seem to have been originally required to have been in perpetual residence (except a temporary leave of absence like that of Fellows and Scholars of Colleges); and as there are no non-residents, the parochial Clergy can have no voice in the Chapter, except by the present miserable system (though here perhaps the lesser evil of the two,) of non-residence and plurality. The Dean too, who in the old Cathedrals is elected+ by the Chapter, is in the new merely appointed by the Crown: another mark of a secular and Erastian spirit.

The inferior members of the new foundations do not, to the best of our knowledge, ever form corporations, as in the old; though this circumstance need not necessarily be an obstacle to the maintenance of

* At Oxford, Canons; but the title Prebendary is found in old documents as applied to the members of that Cathedral.

+ In modern times under a congé d'élire from the crown, like Bishops; but sacrilegious legislators have of late taken away even this shadow of independence. The noble and successful stand made by the Chapter of Exeter in the election of their present Dean, in defiance of secular tyranny, must be fresh in the memory of every one.

a Collegiate discipline among them. There is also a wider distinction between the clerical and lay members, as if the notions before alluded to had already begun to prevail. Minor Canon* is the universal term in these Cathedrals: in the old it was of rare occurrence ;† it appears to us less honourable than the ancient title of Vicar, as seeming to mark not so much deputation as inferiority of position, so that deterioration is marked here also. Indeed we may see the same secular spirit in the substitution of the name of revenue, Prebendary, for that of office, Canon, to denote the capitular Clergy.

The few Collegiate Churches which escaped destruction in the sixteenth century, or have been refounded since, will merit a portion of our notice. Their Chapters are of the same nature as those attached to Cathedrals, except that they have no special relation to the Bishop. The ancient ones were very various as to the number and titles of their members; being frequently only small private foundations for the better performance of Divine Service in a parish Church. Many of these latter were founded in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the age of founding Monasteries had ceased: in these cases, the fabric generally does not differ from an ordinary parochial Church. But many are of earlier foundation. The President was called by different names, Dean, Provost, Warden, or Master; the other members, Canons, Prebendaries, Fellows, or Chaplains. Those now remaining are Westminster, Windsor, Middleham, Heytesbury, Wolverhampton, Brecon, Manchester, Southwell, and Wimborne. The academical Colleges and those of Eton and Winchester are hardly to be reckoned here, as being directly educational. Of these, the ancient foundation of Windsor and the modern of Westminster, exactly resemble the Cathedrals of the new foundation, which Mr. Jebb ingeniously suggests were modelled from the former. Not that the same objections are to be made to the constitution of S. George's Chapel, as to that of the new Cathedrals. The Canons of Windsor are the King's Chaplains, ministering in one of his royal Chapels, and are consequently naturally under his control and appointment; and in a merely Collegiate Chapter, not forming the council of any Bishop, there was of course no occasion for non-resident Prebendaries. Westminster, of old an Abbey, refounded by Henry VIII. as a Cathedral, its Bishopric destroyed by Edward VI., its Abbey restored by Queen Mary, has existed in its present Collegiate form since the time of Queen Elizabeth. Manchester, except in the remarkable smallness of its numbers, resembles them also; it has a Warden, four Fellows, and two Chaplains. Their titles have been lately changed to Dean, Canons, and Minor Canons,

The Minor Canons of Oxford Cathedral are popularly called Chaplains, (a name probably arising from the corrupt way of looking on that Church as a mere College Chapel,) but we believe that the other is their correct designation. The name Chaplain is however of ancient date, to express any member of a Quire. The Collegiate Church of Higham Ferrers was founded for a Master or Warden, Chaplains, Clerks, and Choristers.

+ In England, we believe, only at S. Paul's and Hereford. In the former, the Minor Canons are required to be Priests, and are recognised as superior to the Vicars, who were in minor orders, and are now only laymen. At Hereford are four Minor Canons elected by the Vicars from among themselves. Here, in both cases, it is a superior title to Vicar, but the case seems altered where the latter title is not in use.

with reference doubtless to the contemplated erection of this Church into the Cathedral of a new Bishopric. Middleham, Heytesbury, Wolverhampton, and Brecon, are little better than nominal Colleges : the first has only a Dean and one Chaplain, the Canons, if there were such officers, and the quire, having vanished; Heytesbury has a Dean and four Prebendaries, but no Quire, as neither has Brecon. This latter,* though founded by Henry VIII. out of the ruins of the two earlier Colleges of Llandewi Brevi and Abergwili, resembles the old Cathedrals in its constitution, having a Dean and Treasurer (whose offices are now annexed to the Bishopric of S. David's), a Precentor and Chancellor, and nineteen Prebendaries with nominal revenues. Wolverhampton, after fluctuating several times between a Conventual and a Collegiate Chapter, has had since the time of Edward IV. a Deanry annexed to that of Windsor, and whose incumbent is therefore non-resident, and seven Prebends of small income, whose holders are also non-resident. The Quire remains, but its four Clerical members are reduced to one, called a Perpetual Curate, who, we believe, follows naturally enough the example of his superiors. Southwell is remarkable for having no President of the Chapter under any title, but only sixteen Prebendaries and a Quire. Wimborne can hardly be called a Collegiate Church, though it bears that title in the Act of Parliament which has decreed its destruction. It has no Chapter, but only a Quire of clerical and lay members, stipendiariest of the Corporation of the town, to which the revenues of the ancient College were granted on that condition.

In most of the smaller Colleges great laxity and many abuses prevail, though it is but fair to attribute them to the extreme poverty of their revenues, which renders the proper residence of the Clergy and the due splendour of choral worship in many cases almost impossible. We cannot however shut our eyes to the fact that one of the richest is also one of the most corrupt; that the Collegiate Church of Westminster is still the stronghold of irreverence and every kind of abuse; that the people are shut out from the nave, which was built for them to pray in, -not only allowed to worship in the Quire, but shut out from the nave, at the expense of crowding them even within the sacrarium; that the tombs of our Kings and the shrine of S. Edward are still numbered among the catch-penny exhibitions of the Metropolis; that a Church, in its fabric the most glorious of our land, in its foundation magnificent, in its history bound up with all the proudest associations of our Church and country, is the very one where the atmosphere of the world has most intruded, and where all decency, order, and reverence are most openly set at nought.

We have thus attempted to give some account of the original foundations of our Cathedral and Collegiate Churches; and we have entered much into details, and stated many minute facts, because we have found great ignorance to prevail upon these subjects, even among otherwise

See the Report of the Oxford Architectural Society for Michaelmas Term, 1845, p. 16.

+ Grants, with similar reservations for the maintenance of Clergy, though of less extent, occur at Higham Ferrers, Stafford, and S. Mary Ottery, and probably often elsewhere.

well-informed persons. To those who are anxious to examine further into the subject, we would recommend the attentive study of Mr. Jebb's most valuable work. From that source we have derived almost all our own information on the subject, except the little we have picked up in visits to several of the Churches referred to. We trust that the learned author will accept our best thanks and acknowledgments for the great service he has done the Church by his most seasonable publication, and that he will not be offended at an attempt to disseminate in a more popular form the fruits of his laborious studies.*

We have at present confined ourselves mainly to the first intention and constitution of Chapters: we hope in another number to recur to the subject, with reference to their present utility, and the means afforded for their reformation. We shall see how far their real purposes have been regarded in the late legislative enactments relating to them; and further consider a subsidiary but very important end of their constitution, namely Clerical Education. We shall hope to show that this was contemplated by their founders, and also that it might be realized at the present day with great facility and advantage.

FEUDALISM AND THE CRUSADES.

THE practice of making pilgrimages to the Holy Land had been common among the Christians of Europe long before that country fell into the hands of the Saracens. After their rule was established, the enterprise became one of great danger, but this, instead of lessening, combined with other causes in greatly increasing the number of the pilgrims. For danger proves an allurement as often as a discouragement. Timid minds choose the path which promotes safety and ease, but bolder spirits see in the risks and difficulties which beset a dangerous course, its most powerful inducements and its greatest charms. Palestine was associated with the dearest hopes of the Christian world; there the sublimest deeds of the faith had been performed; it was "the glory of all lands," and the work of pilgrimage was regarded as one of great piety, to which inestimable blessings were attached. The Moslem rulers of Judea soon found that it was for their interest to afford all possible facilities to those who came from Christendom to visit the Holy Sepulchre, their numbers being a prolific source of revenue. But when the Caliphs were driven out of their possessions by the Seljukian Turks, the latter, more barbarous and less politic than their predecessors, committed acts of great oppression towards the Christian pilgrims. When it was known in Europe how the Holy Places were desecrated, and the pilgrims robbed and injured, a spirit of indignation was roused in the minds of the people, and they longed to be led forth against the authors of such profanation and outrage.

* In his admiration of the secular school of Church-music founded by Purcell and his followers, alone, we are unable to agree with him.

Twenty years before this, Gregory VII., the famous Hildebrand, had formed the design of uniting the Christian nations of Europe in a league against the Mussulmans, whose ambition for conquest seemed to call for some decisive check. Besides their victories in the East and in Africa, they had at various times successfully invaded Southern Europe. They had made themselves masters of the Mediterranean, obtained possession of Crete, Sardinia, and Sicily, established colonies in Italy, attacked and plundered Rome, and penetrated on one occasion into the heart of France. From all these places they had been at length expelled; but Spain, their first European conquest, they still retained.

The successor of Gregory, Urban II., had been earnestly entreated by the Greek Emperor to send him assistance against the Turks, who had taken Nice, and seemed to threaten Constantinople. At this juncture Peter the Hermit began his mission through Europe, seeking to stir up the people to avenge the desecration of the Holy Sepulchre, and the ill-usage of the Christian pilgrims. He found willing and attentive listeners wherever he went; and moved by his zealous exhortations, nobles, Priests, and Monks, with crowds of men, women, and children, became his followers, in a cause in which to conquer was incomparably glorious, and to fall was to gain the crown of martyrdom. The Councils of Placentia and Clermont were held for the purpose of giving to the expedition the dignity of authority, and strengthening the cause by increase of numbers. At the latter Council, Urban addressed the assembly in an impassioned speech, in which he urged them to go forth and attack the enemies of GOD, the desecrators of CHRIST'S Sepulchre, the oppressors of Spain, and the deadly foes of their own faith and nations. At the conclusion of this speech, the whole multitude cried out, "It is the will of GOD,-it is the will of GoD;" thousands enlisted on the instant, and put the cross upon their garments.

All classes had been exhorted to join the expedition, and every motive likely to influence men had been skilfully addressed by the preachers of the Crusade. The brave were urged by the glory of the victories which awaited them; the timid were encouraged by promises of supernatural assistance; the young were inflamed with eager desires to mingle in a conflict where they might gain distinction and fame; and the old imagined that they could in no way so well repair their past deficiencies, or end their lives more acceptably to God, than by laying them down in so holy a cause. Those who were subject to Ecclesiastical censures were absolved, penances were remitted, prisoners liberated, debtors freed from suit for their debts, the interest of debts and loans abolished, and hostilities against states prohibited, on condition of service in the object of recovering the Holy Sepulchre. Thus appealed to and animated by every variety of human motives-by hope, by fear, by curiosity, by ambition, by love of distinction, by fear of contempt, by dread of punishment, and by religious feeling,-often erroneous, but sometimes true,-three hundred thousand men flocked to the standard of Peter the Hermit, and put themselves under his guidance. These went on their march, undisciplined, unprovided with supplies, unacquainted with the countries through which they were to pass, or with any language but their own. They had been taught to expect that their wants