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55 The Enclitics are:

a. The pres. indic. of eiμí and onμi, except the 2 sing. ei and φής.

b. The oblique cases sing. of the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd personal pronouns, and the oblique cases dual, with the plural cases, except σφῶν and σφᾶς, of the third personal pronoun.

C. All cases of the indefinite rìs, the interrogative being always accentuated with the acute even in the nom., as though it were an initial syllable (above, 51, c. 4).

d. The indefinite adverbs πώς, πή, ποί, πού, ποθί, ποθέν, ποτέ.

e. The conjunctions πώ, τέ, τοί, θήν, γέ, κέ (κέν), νύ (νύν), Tép, þá, together with the local suffix -de. Of these roí is sometimes proclitic as well as enclitic: thus we have To Yáρ TOI. The following are the main rules respecting the enclitics:

a. If an enclitic follows an oxytone, the acute accent is restored: as ὀρθός τις.

B. If it follows a proparoxytone, or properispomenon, it affects the last syllable with an acute accent: as ἔπαισέ με, δῆλόν πως, οr as in the line of Homer (Il. II. 497):

Σχοινόν τε Σκωλόν τε πολύκνημόν τ Ετεωνόν.

But after a paroxytone, perispomenon, or oxytone, the enclitic merely loses its accent, as in ἄνδρα μοι, θεῶν τις, τίς ποτε;

y. If it follows a proclitic, it affects it with an acute accent; as εἴ τις, ὥσπερ.

S. If two or more enclitics occur in succession, an accent may be added for every three syllables: as εἴ περ τίς σε μοί φησίν ποτέ, where e Teρ Tis and rís σe poi are considered to be successive proparoxytona. The old grammarians (Arcadius, p. 146) lay it down. as a rule that in this case every enclitic takes the accent of the following, so that the last alone remains unaccentuated; but modern critics prefer the method which we have adopted (see Göttling, Accent. § 47, VII.). In the editions there is a good deal of inconsistency in consequence of this difference of opinion.

The main rules with regard to the enclitics are liable to the following exceptions.

(a) If an enclitic of more than one syllable follows a paroxytone word, it retains its proper accent; thus we have u λoyos TOTÈ ἐναντίος σφίσι. It is proposed to extend this to the case of a perispomenon which involves the paroxytone; as in μow Tiva. This rule of course includes the properispomena in § and √, as φοίνιξ ἐστί, κῆρυξ ἐστί, which were probably paroxytona originally. The grammarians (Arcad. p. 140) would retain the accent of monosyllable enclitics in these cases, writing, for example, óμîλię μoû, but there is no sufficient authority for this.

(b) If the vowel which ought to receive the inclined accent is elided, some enclitics retain their tone, as in πολλοὶ δ ̓ εἰσίν, πάλαι ποτ ̓ ἐστί, but μηδ' οἱ (Hom. Il. xΙ. 442).

(c) Personal pronouns retain their accent after a preposition, as περὶ σοῦ, παρὰ σοί, πρὸς σέ.

(d) eiui, which in that case throws back its accent in the 3 pers. sing. σr, is not an enclitic, when it signifies "there is," "it is allowed or possible" (= eğeσT), or when it stands at the beginning of a sentence or after ἀλλ', εἰ, οὐκ, μή, ὡς, καί, μέν, ὅτι, τοῦ, τοῦτ ̓, as ἔστι θεός, “ it is a god,” ἔστιν οὕτως, “ it is so,” ἔστι "there is to me," i.e. "I have,” čσтiv ideîv, "it is possible to see," oʊk ἔστι, τοῦτ ̓ ἔστιν.

μοι,

(e) onui retains its accent, when it is separated from the context by punctuation, as in ὁ αὐτὸς δέ, φασίν, οὐκ ἄδικός ἐστιν.

(f) rìs retains its accent at the beginning of a new sentence, and some modern editors write Tivés, when it signifies "several persons," as eiol Tivés. Hermann (de em. rat. p. 69) has some rules respecting the accentuation of @τινι and ὧντινων, which he has not observed in his own editions.

Obs. For the drawing back of the accent in the case of oxytones, which suffer elision, see below, Art. 138.

§ VII. Stops.

56 In addition to the accents, which depend both on the word and on the sentence, the Greeks have several other marks to assist the reader, some of which refer to words alone, and others to the members of the sentence only. These are

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The apostrophe, which marks an elision, as in aπ' äλλwv for ἀπὸ ἄλλων.

The coronis, which marks a crasis, as in rápyúpiov for тò ἀργύριον.

The diaresis, which marks a division between two vowels, as in ἀΐσσω.

b. for the sentence:

The names,

The full stop, as in πράγμα.
The colon, as in πρᾶγμα·

The comma, as in πράγμα,

The interrogation, as in πράγμα;

λov ("limb," "member") and κóμμa (" a section") refer to the parts of the sentence over which the influence of the stop extends: for the same reason, the full stop, which governs the whole sentence, is called a period. A similar mode of speaking is adopted by the Jews, who call their accents, which are modes of punctuation, kings, emperors, &c., according to their domain in the sentence. The note of interrogation was not introduced till the 9th century A. D. Modern editors do not hesitate to use the note of admiration, as ὦ τῶν παρόντων κακών! φεύ, φεύ! or to include quotations between inverted commas, and though there is no ancient authority for either, the practice is very convenient, and is quite justifiable on general grounds.

PART II.

ETYMOLOGY.

§ I. Divisions of the Subject.

57 IN Etymology three subjects come under discussion. First, the proper classification of different kinds of words; secondly, the principles which guide the analysis or dissection of an individual word; and thirdly, the pathology of words, or the changes which are introduced into their structure by the contact of incompatible articulations.

§ II. Classification of Words.

58 In the Indo-Germanic languages all words may be comprised in two general classes: the PRONOUNS, or words which indicate space or position (puncta, extremitates, and lineamenta); and the WORDS CONTAINING ROOTS, which express the positional relations of general attributes.

59 In the former class, we find words, declinable or indeclinable, as the case may be, without any admixture with the other element of language.

Words of the latter class require the addition of at least one pronominal suffix to make them words.

60 For this reason, we term the PRONOUNS or positional words, the organizing, constituent, or formative element of inflected language, and the ROOTS the material element.

61 By pronominal additions of a perfectly analogous nature, the same root becomes either a NOUN or a VERB, that is, it expresses either a thing, or an acting, or result of acting. The only etymological difference between the noun and the verb is this that the pronominal suffixes, which mark the inflexions of the noun, are

fixed or adverbial, while those which mark the persons of the verb are themselves capable of inflexion. When they lose this independent power of inflexion they become intermediate affixes, and the crude verb is then capable of receiving a set of case-inflexions, so that it becomes a noun. This sort of noun is called a participle.

62 As, then, the noun and verb spring from the same roots, or material part of language, and as their pronominal or positional affixes are strictly analogous, it is unnecessary to consider them as different parts of speech in an etymological classification; and the eight syntactical parts of speech when thus considered will fall into two great classes, represented by the following table:

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The Interjection is either an unmeaning cry or the vocative case of a noun. The Adverbs are either pronominal words or cases of nouns. The Prepositions and Conjunctions are pronominal adverbs performing certain functions in regard to the construction of nouns and the connexion of sentences. The Numerals are adjectives in Syntax, though etymologically pronouns. In a grammar it is not necessary to take any distinct notice of the Interjection, which has only an occasional influence on the syntax (see below, 453, ee, B). The Adverb is important, both in its form (259 sqq.) and in its syntactical use (435 sqq.). The Preposition appears in syntax as an important supplement to the cases (470 sqq.). And the Conjunction contributes to the machinery of co-ordinate and subordinate sentences (Syntax, Chapter IV.).

§ III. Analysis of Words.

63 The analysis of words depends upon our ability to discriminate between the positional and material elements of language.

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