in Plat. Resp. 499 D: περὶ τούτου ἕτοιμοι τῷ λόγῳ διαμάχεσθαι, where the pronoun ἡμεῖς is also omitted. (d) The copula is often omitted in relative sentences; thus Eurip. Alc. 171: πάντας δὲ βωμούς, οἳ κατ ̓ Αδμήτου δόμους [εἰσι], προσῆλθε. This is sometimes found to be the case with the relative particles ὅτι and εἰ; thus (Plat. Resp. VI. p. 505 Α): ὅτι γε ἡ τοῦ ἀγαθοῦ ἰδέα μέγιστον μάθημα [ἐστί], πολλάκις ἀκήκοας. Soph. Phil. 1246: ἀλλ ̓ εἰ δίκαια [ἐστί], τῶν σοφῶν κρείσσω τάδε. (e) The omission of the copula with the antecedent is regular in such phrases as οὐδεὶς [ἐστὶν] ὅστις οὐ, and the like, where the construction is often obliterated by an attraction of the antecedent into the case of its relative (above, 405). (ƒ) The copula is sometimes wanting even in the dependent moods; thus the imperative is omitted (Xen. Anab. III. 3, § 14) : τοῖς θεοῖς χάρις [ἔστω]; the subjunctive (Il. Ι. 547): ὃν μέν κ' ἐπιεικὲς [j] ἀκούεμεν; the optative (Theocr. XVIII. 25): τῶν οὐδ ̓ ἄν τις ἄμωμος [εἴη], ἐπεί χ ̓ Ἑλένα παρισωθῇ ; the objective infinitive (Plat. Phad. p. 74 Ε): οὔκουν ὁμολογοῦμεν ἀναγκαῖόν που [είναι]. (g) A preposition with its case, or a compound involving this combination, seems to be specially adapted for predication, without the copula or some other verb containing the primary predication implied; thus Asch. Agam. 675: πολύανδροί τε φεράσπιδες κυναγοὶ κατ ̓ ἴχνος πλατᾶν ἄφαντον [ᾔεσαν οι εἵποντο], “ the shielded huntsmen went or followed in the invisible track of their oars." Eurip. Electr. 733: νεφέλαι δ ̓ ἔνυδροι πρὸς ἄρκτον, “the watery clouds went to the north." And even in a secondary predication we have the same usage, as in Thucyd. iv. 126: κατὰ πόδας [ἰόντες οι ἑπόμενοι] τὸ εὔψυχον ἐν τῷ ἀσφαλεῖ ὀξεῖς ἐνδείκνυνται, “ following at their heels, they keenly exhibit their courage when there is no risk." Hence we have the same omission with compound adjectives, as in sch. Αgam. 277: ὑπερτελής τε [ἤρθη], πόντον ὥστε νωτίσαι ἰχθὺς [?], πορευτοῦ λαμπάδος πρὸς ἡδονήν, πεύκη, τὸ χρυσοφεγγές ὥς τις ἥλιος σέλας παραγγείλασα Μακίστου σκοπαῖς, where there is a secondary predicate of time in the aorist participle παραγγείλασα, “ the pine torch was lifted aloft, so that the fishes rose to the surface of the sea to enjoy the passenger light,—having sped forward its blaze to the watch-towers of Macistus." In this case, as in those mentioned above (d), where we have given an instance of the phrase with the preposition (Eurip. Alc. 171), the copula is omitted in relative sentences; thus Arist. Pol. 1. 9, § 6: τῷ εἰσάγεσθαι ὧν ἐνδεεῖς [εἰσὶ] καὶ ἐκπέμπειν ὧν πλεονάCovo, "by the importation of the things which they want, and by the exportation of their superfluities." § III. Primary Predicates. (b) Participles and other Verbals. (a) Participles. 420 (aa) The active participles are not very often used as primary predicates, for the tenses of the verb will generally express our meaning with sufficient definiteness: consequently ππOS τρέχει will be more common than ὁ ἵππος ἐστι τρέχων, which is equivalent to it (above, 381). But we find such phrases as ôdòs n ópwμévn ηv åyovoa ävw (Xen. Anab. IV. 3, § 5); and in an emphatic passage we might say, ỏ av0pwπós éσtiv čμπvéwv (cf. Æschyl. Agam. 629); or, ὁ παῖς ἐστὶ πάντ ̓ ἀγνοῶν καὶ πάντ ̓ ἀποβλέπων εἰς Tòv didáσκaλov (cf. Plat. Phæd. p. 239 B); or, in the aorist, v ó Θεμιστοκλῆς βεβαιότατα δὴ φύσεως ἰσχὺν δηλώσας καὶ ἄξιος θαυ μáoai (Thucyd. I. 138, § 3); or, in the perfect, o xenoμòs čστaι Sedoрkos (Esch. Ag. 1150). The difference between this mode of predication and that with the finite verb is shown by such passages as the following; Thucyd. Ι. 38, § 2: δῆλον ὅτι, εἰ τοῖς πλέοσιν ἀρέσκοντές ἐσμεν, τοῖσδ ̓ ἂν μόνοις οὐκ ὀρθῶς ἀπαρέσκοιμεν, “ it is clear that if we habitually give satisfaction to the greater number, there can be no justice in the dissatisfaction which these alone profess to entertain." Id. 11. 29, § 4: [Týpns dè oνte tò avtò ŏvoμa ἔχων, βασιλεύς τε πρῶτος ἐν κράτει Οδρυσῶν ἐγένετο]. Id. III. 2, § 1: à μетажεμπóμevoι hoaν, “which things they were sendμεταπεμπόμενοι ἦσαν, ing for." (bb) The passive participle in -μévos is very often predicated ; indeed, as we have seen above (324, (3)), it is a substitute for certain tense forms; and for the sake of emphasis we have such phrases as κάρτ' ἀπομούσως ἦσθα γεγραμμένος (Æschyl. Ag. 733), "you were painted very unfavourably." (B) Other Verbals. 421 The verbal adjectives in -Tós and -Téos are also used as primary predicates; thus, very often τοῦτο οὐ ῥητόν ἐστι μοί. ἀσκητέα ἐστί σοι ἡ ἀρετή. But the verbal in -Téos is also used as a mere infinitive, without inflexion, and governing the case of the noun, which in the direct predication would have been the subject. Here the dative is taken in immediate connexion with the substantive verb, and coτí μoi, ἐστί σοι, "there is to me," "there is to thee," &c., mean, "I have,' ""thou hast" (to do so and so), i. e. "it is right or necessary for me and thee to do so.” Thus for ἀσκητέα ἐστί-σοι ἡ ἀρετή, "virtue is-for-thee to cultivate," we may write ảσkηtéov éσtí-σo Tηv άρETηv, "it-is-for-thee to cultivate virtue," i. e. "thou must cultivate virtue;" and so, if the verb implied governs another case; as ἐπιθυμητέον ἐστί-σοι τῆς ἀρετῆς. The person is sometimes but more rarely expressed in the accusative, as in Plat. Crit. p. 49 A: οὐδενὶ τρόπῳ φαμὲν ἑκόντας ἀδικητέον εἶναι. Both constructions may appear in the same sentence, as Herod. IX. 58: éxelvoiσi ταῦτα ποιεῦσι οὐκ ἐπιτρεπτέα ἐστί, ἀλλὰ διωκτέοι εἰσί, “ it-is-not(for us) to give permission to them doing these things, but they are-for-us to pursue (we must pursue them)." Obs. 1 Just in the same way we have δίκαιόν ἐστιν ἐμὲ ταῦτα ποιεῖν by the side of δίκαιός εἰμι ταῦτα ποιεῖν; whence we have the negatives εἰ μὴ ἀδικῶ γε, οι ἀδικοίην μέντ ̓ ἂν εἰ μή, i. e. “ I ought to do so. Similarly we have ἄξιόν ἐστι, δῆλόν ἐστιν ἐμέ, κ.τ.λ., by the side of ἄξιός εἰμι, δῆλός εἰμι. And as δεῖ=δέον ἐστί is equivalent to δίκαιόν ἐστι, we may have both πολλοῦ δέω τοῦτο ποιεῖν and πολλοῦ δεῖ ἐμὲ τοῦτο ποιεῖν. Obs. 2 As the verbals in -rós and -Téos are of a qualitative or adverbial nature, like the adjectives mentioned above (419, (b)), we often find them predicated in the neuter plural; as συγγνώστ ̓ ἂν ἦν σοι τοῦδ ̓ ἐρασθῆναι λέχους (Eurip. Med. 491). Obs. 3 For this reason, and because the stress in the combination ἐστί μοι, orí σo, as expressing the subject, falls upon the dative of the pronoun, the substantive verb is often omitted, and sometimes when the subject is clear, the pronoun also is wanting; thus we may have yuvaiko's ovdaμws noonréa (Soph. Antig. 678) for οὐδαμῶς δεῖ ἡμᾶς ἡσσᾶσθαι γυναικός. Obs. 4 We observe this in other combinations of orí with the dative; thus in Homer, Il. xvi. 159, πᾶσιν δὲ παρήϊον αἵματι φοινόν, Taσw includes the subject and copula—" all had their mouths gory with blood." Obs. 5 There cannot be an omission of the copula when the participle is predicated in a conditional sentence. Apparent instances to the contrary are corrupt. § IV. Primary Predicates. (c) Tenses of the Finite Verb. 422 As every verb has reference to action, and all action must take place in time, whatever is predicated by a verb is a predication of tense. A predication of tense has reference either to the time of speaking, or to some other point of time which must be defined. In the former case the tense is called (a) definite or determinate; in the latter (B) indefinite or indeterminate1. (a) In Greek the following are the definite tenses which relate to the time of speaking: The present, which expresses simultaneity, i. e. res geritur (quod significat rem geri) eo ipso tempore, quo loquimur. The future, which expresses posteriority, i.e. res geretur (quod significat fore ut res geratur) post id tempus, quo loquimur. The perfect, which expresses anteriority, i.e. res gesta est (quod significat rem gestam fuisse) ante id tempus, quo loquimur. Thus: ypápw, "I write or am writing," i.e. "now, at the moment of speaking." Ypaya, "I shall write," i. e. "at some time after the moment of speaking." yéypapa, "I have written," i. e. "at some time before the moment of speaking." (B) The following are the indefinite tenses, which relate to some time specially defined. The imperfect, which expresses simultaneity, i.e. res gerebatur (quod significat rem geri) aliquo tempore, de quo loquimur. The aorist, which expresses posteriority, i.e. res gesta est (quod significat fore ut res geratur) post aliquod tempus, de quo loquimur. The pluperfect, which expresses anteriority, i.e. res gesta erat (quod significat rem gestam fuisse) ante aliquod tempus, de quo loquimur. 1 This classification is due to J. L. Burnouf, to whom it was suggested by the tenses of the French verb; see New Cratylus, § 372. Thus: eypapov, "I was writing," i. e. "at some specified time." eypaya, "I wrote," i. e. " after some specified time." ἐγεγράφειν, eyeɣpápeɩ, “I had written," i. e. "before some specified time." (a) Definite Tenses. 423 A, 1. The Present. (aa) It is unnecessary to give any examples of the ordinary use of the present indicative. But there are three applications of this tense which deserve special notice. (1) In lively narratives the present is used for the imperfect or aorist, to signify that an action was going on, or that a deed was done, at some time specified by the context; thus Thucyd. vII. 83: καὶ ἀναλαμβάνουσί τε τὰ ὅπλα καὶ οἱ Συρακούσιοι αἰσθάνονται καὶ ἐπαιώνισαν γνόντες δὲ οἱ ̓Αθηναῖοι ὅτι οὐ λανθάνουσι κατέθεντο [τὰ ὅπλα] πάλιν: here the present is mixed up with the aorist, to show that the actions denoted by the former continued up to the point of time indicated by the latter. Again, we may have the present in a relative sentence, with an emphatical reference to past time; as in Eurip. Bacch. 2: Διόνυσος ὃν τίκτει ποθ ̓ ἡ Κάδμου κόρη Σεμέλη λοχευθεῖσ ̓ ἀστραπηφόρῳ πυρί, where the aorist λοXevoeira, as well as the particle TоTé, indicates the past time, to which TíKTE points as the moment of the event described; cf. Eurip. Suppl. 640; Xen. Ages. II. 17—20, Anab. 1. 1; Thucyd. I. 48. (2) The present is used for the future in order to express the certainty of the coming event; thus we have the prophecy of Apollo, Pind. Οl. VIII. 42: Πέργαμος ἀμφὶ τεαῖς χερὸς ἐργασίαις ἁλίσκεται, áλíoκeтaι, "Troy is taken, i. e. is not impregnable, but is doomed to capture, where thy hands have wrought," though afterwards, when a definite time is referred to, we have the future apğeral. See also Pind. Pyth. IV. 49; and Herod. vII. 140, where we have μévei, λείπεται, πέλει and ερείπει in a Delphic oracle. Χen. Cyr. VII. 1, 19: νῦν ὁρᾶς ἔργον τῆς σῆς ταχυεργίας· νῦν γὰρ εἰ φθάσομεν κ. τ.λ. οὐδεὶς ἀποθανεῖται. (3) The present is used for the perfect in verbs which express the permanence of a state, or an impression and its results. Such are ἀκούω, κλύω, αἰσθάνομαι, μανθάνω, γιγνώσκω, expressing the |