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δὴ ὁ αὐτός τε ἀναβεβήκεε καὶ κατ ̓ αὐτὸν ἄλλοι Πέρσαι ἀνέβαινον, προσβάντων δὲ συχνῶν, οὕτω δὴ Σάρδιές τε ἡλώκεσαν καὶ πᾶν τὸ ἄστυ ἐπορθέετο. That the aorist might have been substituted for these two pluperfects is clear from the passage of Thucydides (III. 22) quoted above (427, (aa)). The similarity in meaning between the aorist and pluperfect in these cases has given rise to an occasional confusion between àπikéaто the 2 aor. and amiKaTо the plup. in the text of Herodotus: see e. g. VII. 157.

(C+B) The Future of the Perfect Passive or Paulo-post Futurum.

(aa) The perfects of intransitive verbs denote the state or condition which is consequent upon an action. Whether, therefore, they retain their original forms or receive new inflexions, they become present tenses, and may have their own futures, as well of the active as of the middle inflexion; thus,

θνήσκω, “I am dying;” θανοῦμαι, “I shall die;” τέθνηκα, “I am dead,” hence τεθνήκω, id.; τεθνήξομαι οι τεθνήξω, “Ι shall be dead."

Similarly if the present is transitive; as

loτnμ, "I am placing;" σтηkа, "I have been placed" or “I stand;" cσTýęw, čoτńkoμaι, "I shall stand;" and in the same way perhaps the well-known verb кw, adsum, “I am come," has been formed (see above, 319, 352).

(bb) This rule is particularly applicable to perfects of a passive form; as

μμvýσк, "I am reminding;" péμvnμaι, "I have been reμιμνήσκω, minded," i. e. "I remember;" fut. μeμvýσoμai, "I shall remember."

ypάow, "I am writing;" ypápoμai, "I am being written;" Ypapnooμai, "I shall be written;" yéypappa, "I have been written," i. e. "I stand or remain written;" yeypároμai, "I shall stand or remain written;" as in the following example:

οὐδεὶς κατὰ σπουδὰς μετεγγραφήσεται,

ἀλλ ̓ ὥσπερ ἦν τὸ πρῶτον ἐγγεγράψεται,

(Aristoph. Equites, 1371),

i. e. "no one shall be transferred by private interest to another

catalogue, but as he was at first enrolled, so shall he remain inscribed."

SV. Primary Predicates considered with reference to the Secondary Predicates. Voices of the Verb.

429 In itself every finite verb involves a primary predication, and therefore, with its nominative expressed or understood, includes the whole of the proposition, as Tρéxe, "he is running." That proposition, however, is very frequently not complete or intelligible without the addition of some secondary predication. Accordingly, the verb is divided into different classes, which are not always in the Greek language distinguished by differences of form, but which, in their syntactical usage, require or dispense with the adjunct of an accusative case denoting the secondary predication of the object implied in the action.

It has been already mentioned (287), that, according to the inflexions, there are only two differences of voice, namely, that in which the person-ending represents an instrumental case, or indicates that there is an act by some one, as didwμ, "there is a giving by me," and that in which the person-ending represents a locative case, or indicates that there is an act done upon some one, as dídoμai, "there is a giving on or of me." As a matter of usage, however, in the Greek language there are five distinctions of voice, two for the former and three for the latter class of person-endings, namely, one transitive and one intransitive or neuter for the active form, and two transitive and one intransitive for the passive form, as in the following table:

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430 Although it is the custom to place the transitive before the intransitive verb in the active form, there can be no doubt that, in the active, as in the passive inflexions, the intransitive usage is anterior to the transitive, which is merely a causative or secondary signification, and requires an objective case as a secondary predica

tion to complete it. The anomalies of signification, which have been briefly mentioned above (336—350), show that even after the transitive use had become the common and established signification, there was a tendency to fall back on the neuter or independent construction. Thus in common Greek exw means "I have or hold forth" something, which is expressed in the accusative case. But in the established idiom this verb, with an adverb in -ws, means "to have, hold forth, or exhibit oneself in a certain manner," just as in English the same kind of verb passes to a different application; for "to hold forth" is used absolutely for "to speak in public." And there is of course no reason why exw, "I am in possession, or I hold forth and exhibit," should not have been originally a complete and independent predication. The true theory of syntax, according to which every oblique case represents an adverbial or secondary predication, renders it necessary to consider every verb even of the active form as having been originally neuter or independent.

(aa) It will generally be found that the difference between a transitive and intransitive verb, whether the form be active or passive, consists in the nature of the secondary predication, which is expressed by the accusative case, when this case is added. For while the transitive verb may be accompanied by an accusative expressing either the secondary predicate of manner (which is in the category of quality) or the secondary predicate of the object (which is in the category of quantity), the intransitive verb is limited to the former, which may, however, be added whenever it is required. Thus in the phrase ἐστεφάνουν ἐμὲ εὐαγγέλια (Arist. Eq. 654), "they crowned me for the good news," the object of the action is expressed by èué, and the manner of the action by evayyéλia, "in the way of good news. But in ἐκδήμους στρατείας ἐξῄεσαν (Thucyd. 1. 15), “they went out on foreign expeditions," the accusative merely denotes the manner of going out, and being of cognate signification with the verb, and often expressed by a word containing the same root, this use of the accusative is called the figura etymologica.

(bb) A number of verbs, which, according to their ordinary signification, are intransitives, are used in certain senses with an accusative of the object or quantity, and this shows how the more uniformly transitive verbs have assumed their present signification

and usage. Thus, not to speak of the accusatives of extension and duration (below, 462, 463), many neuter verbs take an accusative of the object, by passing on to a secondary meaning, which is implied in, or inferred from, their strict and ordinary use. Thus, étioraolai in itself means "to stand out of" something, and therefore takes the genitive with or without a repeated preposition, as ¿KOTÀS TÊS ÓP¤ns Kai Sikalas ódov (Dem. de Cor. p. 230, 3), "having left the right and just road ; or, ἐξ ἕδρας σοὶ πλόκαμος ἐξέστηχ ̓ ὅδε (Eurip. Bacch. 928), "this lock has got out of its place for you." In a secondary and inferential meaning èíoraoba signifies "to avoid,” i.e. to stand out of the way of something; and in this sense it is followed by the accusative of the person or thing avoided; as opovoûvтa yáp viv Ovк av ééσтηv čкv (Soph. Ajax, 82), "if he were in his senses, I should not avoid him through fear;” and, οὐδένα πώποτε κίνδυνον VπÈρ dóğNS ¿§ÉOτn (Demosth. in Androt. p. 617, 15), “it [the people of Athens, o nuos] has never yet shrunk from any danger in the pursuit of glory." Similarly puyéw, "I am cold," which expresses a state frequently consequent on terror, is used in the transitive sense, "I fear;" thus, on the one hand, we have ai dè πaρlévoi píynoav ús Kоvσav (Soph. Ed. Col. 1607), "the virgins shuddered (with fear), when they heard ;" and, on the other hand, ovtoi è̟ywv ěppiya μáxηv ovdè kтútov iππшν (Hom. Il. xvI. 175), "assuredly I do not fear battle or the tramp of steeds." The neuter verb πŋdáw, "to jump or bound," not only takes the accusative of cognate signification (figura etymologica), as πηdâν πýdnμа, "to leap a leap" (Eurip. Androm. 1140, Orest. 263), or #ηdâv λainpá (Eurip. Ion, 717), "to take light leaps;" πηdâv peišova (Soph. Œd. T. 1300), "to take greater bounds," i. e. with ηdnμara understood, but is even used in the directly transitive sense, "to traverse with bounds," in Soph. Aj. 30:

αὐτὸν εἰσιδὼν μόνον

πηδώντα πεδία,

"having seen him alone bounding over the plains." So also óppalva, "I am deeply agitated," of the sea, in its secondary sense, "I ponder deeply" (Pind. Ol. XIII. 84), may take an accusative, as in Pind. Ol. VIII. 41: avтíov opμaívov тépas, "pondering on the adverse portent."

(cc) The transitive use of verbs of the active inflexion belongs more properly to the different employments of the accusative case.

It may however be convenient to place before the student a list of the verbs, which, though usually transitive, may be employed idiomatically in a neuter or independent predication.

*AÃQ, (a) “I am a leader," "I lead on,” as åyew èπì þáλayyos (Xen. Cyrop. 1. 6, § 19); (b) åyei kaì þépei, “to plunder," sometimes with an accusative of the country (Xen. Hell. III. 2, § 2); also as common transitive verbs, but in the inverted order, and in the sense "to carry off" (Xen. Cyrop. III. 3, §2; Plato, Phædr. 279 c; Legg. VII. 817 a).

In the imperative aye, ayere are interjectional: "come on!" or “ well then.” And the compounds ἄπαγ ̓ ἐκποδών, ὕπαγε signify "get out of the way." Similarly ȧváyew means "to withdraw (Xen. Cyr. VII. 1, § 45); áváyei éπì móda (Arist. Av. 383), “to retreat facing the enemy;" ȧváyew, i. e. vaûv, “to weigh anchor or put out to sea" (Herod. III. 41). And Stayev, i. e. Bíov (Herod. I. 94), means to live."

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AIPO, "I lift," means (a) "to be up and off;" as in the imper. alp' eis κóрakas, "be off to the crows;" (b) "to rise," of the sun, as Soph. Phil. 1315:

ὡς ἂν αὐτὸς ἥλιος

ταύτῃ μὲν αἴρῃ τῇδε δ' αὖ δύνῃ πάλιν.

(c) ἆραι τῷ στρατῷ, ταῖς ναυσί, " to start, to set sail,” also ἀπαίρειν, as ἀπαίρειν ἀπὸ Σαλαμῖνος (Herod. VIII. 57). (α) ανταίρειν, "to rise up in opposition," as in Dem. Phil. II. p. 66, 24: μéyelos δυνάμεως πρὸς ἣν οὐδ ̓ ἀντᾶραι δυνησόμεθα.

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ΑΠΑΓΟΡΕΥΩ, ΑΠΕΙΠΟΝ, ΑΠΕΙΡΗΚΑ, “I forbid " or 'say no," "I give in," "I cry out that I have had enough," like the Latin fatiscor, fessus, compared with fateor; thus, où yáρ πoν ἀπεροῦμέν πω; ἥκιστα ἐάν περ μὴ σύ γε ἀπαγορεύσῃς (Plat. Theaetet. 200 D), "we will not give in yet. By no means, unless you cry off first;” ảπeîπov äλye (Eurip. Hec. 930), “I gave in, fainted, through sorrow."

ΑΡΜΟΖΩ, ΣΥΝΑΡΜΟΤΤΩ, “I adapt or accommodate,” means "I am fitted or adapted;" as Owpn§ npμoσev avтê (Hom. Il. III. 333), "the corslet fitted him;" ovvapμóттоvσi áλλýλois (Plat. Protag. 333 A), "they harmonize with one another."

'ANKEN, "I work upon or practise," means "I endeavour,"

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