SX. Concessive Sentences. 621 The concessive sentence differs from the hypothetical clause in the same way as εἰ οὐκ ἐᾶς differs from εἰ μὴ ἐᾷs, namely, as an assertion of fact differs from a mere assumption; but we sometimes find conditional clauses used in a concessive sense, just as etiamsi may approximate in meaning to quamquam; and in a lively and vivid style the assumption may be stated as a fact past and gone; thus kaì dý="even now" or "just now," may be used with the perfect indicative in the hurried statement of an hypothesis, e. g. καὶ δὴ τεθνᾶσι· τίς με δέξεται πόλις; (Eurip. Med. 386), i. e. "they are just now dead (= suppose them dead): what city will receive me?" καὶ δή περ The commonest mode of expressing our "although" in Greek is by the participle, either alone (530, (c)), or followed by Tep (in the poets), or preceded by κaí Tep. The student must be careful not to suppose that xaí Tep, in itself, signifies "although." This fancy is the cause of the common blunder of placing κaí Tep before a finite verb in modern Greek composition'. The participle, which alone occurs in this combination, expresses the concession, and xai TEρ means "even very much;" like the Latin quam-vis, quantumvis, "as much as you please." If a negative is required, it must be où. περ The concessive sentence is sometimes strengthened by uws, eita, ëπeɩta, “nevertheless," which, though belonging to the verb, are sometimes, apparently, attached to the participle. Thus, πιθοῦ γυναιξί, καί περ οὐ στέργων, ὅμως (Esch. Sept. c. Theb. 709), "albeit you love them not, still yield to women." καγώ σ ̓ ἱκνοῦμαι, καὶ γυνή περ οὖσ ̓, ὅμως "I too, although I am a woman, nevertheless beseech you." For ouws with dependent μév, see Theætet. 145 D, above, § 565. "of a 622 The concession is often expressed by κal Toι, truth," which is generally used with the finite verb, in the sense 1 For the correction of the three passages, in which alone кal wep seems to be used with a finite verb, see our remarks in the Journal of Philology, I. p. 220. "and yet;" but is sometimes construed with the participle, like κaí πЄρ. Thus, καί τοι φαμέν γέ που ἀδύνατον εἶναι, ἀλλ ̓ ὅμως, κ.τ.λ. (Plat. Phædo, p. 68 E). οὐδέ μοι ἐμμελέως τὸ Πιττάκειον νέμεται καί τοι σοφοῦ παρὰ pwτòs eipnμévov (Id. Protag. p. 339 c). 623 For Kai To, in both its constructions, the Attic writers idiomatically employ xai тaûтa, "and that too" (of something which has just been said, 411, (bb)), which may be rendered "withal," "all the while.” (a) Like Kai Tep with the participle: 66 Ὅμηρος—οὔτε ἰχθύσιν αὐτοὺς ἑστιᾷ, καὶ ταῦτα ἐπὶ θαλάττῃ ὄντας, οὔτε ἑφθοῖς κρέασιν (Plat. Resp. p. 404 Β), “ although they were living by the sea." After the participle: νῦν γοῦν ἐπεχείρησας, οὐδὲν ὢν καὶ ταῦτα (Plat. Resp. p. 341 c), "just now at any rate you have made the attempt, being nobody all the while" or "although you have made nothing of it, have utterly failed." Followed by όμως: καὶ ταῦτα τρεῖς ἀδικίας πράξαντες, ὅμως φατὲ ἡμᾶς παρανομῆσαι (Thucyd. III. 66), "and yet, after having perpetrated three iniquities, you nevertheless say that we have transgressed." (b) Like Kai Tot with the finite verb: καὶ ταῦτα κούφως ἐκ μέσων ἀρκυσμάτων ὤρουσεν (Asch. Eumen. 112), "and yet (or "and withal") he has leapt lightly from the midst of the nets." With an adjective κal тaûтa means "and that too" or "and withal." We must not confuse καὶ ταῦτα with κἀκεῖνο, which is used with the participle in Plato, Resp. p. 442 c: ěxov aỷ kåkeîvo ẻmiστýμην év aντ, "because that also has science in itself." ἐν αὑτῷ, Obs. For the use of emeίye and oux or in concessive sentences, see above, 548, (16), (30). § XI. Conclusion. Irregularities of Construction. 624 Syntax, as a part of grammar, is concerned only with those constructions which are according to rule. Irregular or ungrammatical constructions, which arise from haste, carelessness or colloquial usage, must be pointed out by the teacher, when they occur. The following are the chief anomalies, which are found in the Greek authors. 625 Anacoluthon (avakóλovlov), or non-sequence, is when the end of a sentence does not correspond to the beginning, and generally arises from a change in the mode of expression, as if the writer had forgotten how he began; thus, ἀποβλέψας γὰρ πρὸς τοῦτον τὸν στόλον, ἔδοξέ μοι πάγκαλος εἶναι (Plat. Legg. p. 686 D). 626 Asyndeton (åσúvdeтov), or non-conjunction, is when two really connected sentences follow without any particle of connexion, whether copulative or adversative. This omission is generally designed to produce an abrupt emphasis. It is most common in lyric poetry, but we find it occasionally in prose, for instance, after the adverb πάντως, as in Plat. Resp. p. 504 E: ἀλλὰ καὶ σὺ ἐρώτα, πάντως αὐτὸ οὐκ ὀλιγάκις ἀκήκοας. oi 627 Ellipse (exλenis), or suppression, is when a word or phrase, which is grammatically necessary for the completion of a sentence, is so easily understood from the inflexions or construction that it is omitted without creating any ambiguity. Thus, if we say ἐτύπτετο πολλάς, we readily understand πλήγας. If we say οἱ πάλαι, τὰ πρίν, every one supplies ἄνθρωποι, πράγματα (399, (β)). Such words as ódós, yn, &c. are constantly suppressed with feminine adjectives or pronouns ; as τῇδε ἐπορεύετο, ἡ ἔρημος, &c. (166, 399, (e)). So also the neuter article with a genitive case, as Tà TOV Oev, "all that belongs to or proceeds from the gods." There is sometimes a suppression of the apodosis of a conditional proposition, when it is directly opposed to another alternative, as in Plat. Protag. p. 325 D: ἐὰν μὲν ἑκὼν πείθηται· εἰ δὲ μή, κ.τ.λ., “ if the child obeys willingly, all is well-if not, they compel him." Some-. times there is only a quasi-ellipse in this case, as in Thucyd. III. 44, which ought to be read ἤν τε γὰρ ἀποφήνω πάνυ ἀδικοῦντας T. αὐτούς, οὐ διὰ τοῦτο καὶ ἀποκτεῖναι κελεύσω, ἤν τε καὶ ἔχοντας ξυγγνώμης (scil. ἀποφήνω αὐτούς), εἶεν, “let that pass, what of that?" The omission of the former of two negatives in a disjunc tive sentence belongs to the figure of ellipse; thus we have sch. Ag. 515: Πάρις γὰρ οὔτε συντελὴς πόλις ἐξεύχεται τὸ δράμα Toû táboνs tλéov, "[neither] Paris nor his accomplice city boasts that the deed is more than the suffering." Aposiopesis (aroonσis) is a kind of ellipse. Thus we omit the imperative in Soph. Antig. 577: μỳ тpißàs ěti! and in the corresponding English, "no more loitering!" 628 Brachylogy (ẞpaxvλoyía), or brevity of expression, is when something is formally omitted, but really included in some other part of the sentence from which it may be supplied. This is of very frequent occurrence in Greek, as in other languages. Thus in Asch. Αg. 364, καὶ τὸν μὲν ἥκειν, τὸν δ ̓ ἐπεισφέρειν κακοί κάκιον ἄλλο πῆμα, we have to supply, after ἥκειν, the words πῆμα Kaкòν þéρоvтa, which are suggested by what follows. One of the most important kinds of brachylogy is the zeugma (Sevyμa), wher a particular verb, which is properly applicable only to one part of the sentence, is made generally applicable to the whole context Thus in Pind. Οl. Ι. 88, ἕλεν δ' Οινομάου βίαν πάρθενόν τε σύν evvov, the meaning is, "he conquered the mighty Enomaus, and obtained the virgin as his bride," so that eoyev must be supplied for the second clause. By another species of brachylogy we have contractions of the sentence, as in Thucyd. II. 59, оikтw σwḍpor Xaẞóvras, where the noun and its epithet must be repeated in the accusative after λαβόντας. 629 Pleonasm (λeovaoμós), or redundance of phraseology. which is the converse of brachylogy, can hardly be considered as a grammatical irregularity. Omissions may produce an ungrammatical structure, but superfluities leave the syntax as it was. The figura etymologica (464) very often amounts to a pleonasm. Repetitions of synonyms, such as πάλιν αὖθις, τάχα ἴσως, secondary predications of the main predicate, such as en Aéywv, and repetitions in a negative form, such as οὐχ ἥκιστα ἀλλὰ μάλιστα, γνωτὰ κοὐκ ἄγνωτα, μή τι μακεστῆρα μῦθον ἀλλὰ σύντομον λέγων, all belong to this class. 630 Hyperbaton (ὑπέρβατον), or inversion, is when words are placed out of their natural order. Plato uses this term in speaking of the transposition of the word μév in a passage of Simonides (Protag. p. 343 E), and exemplifies the thing in Resp. p. 358 E, περὶ γὰρ τίνος ἂν μᾶλλον πολλάκις τις νοῦν ἔχων χαίροι λέγων καὶ ἀκούων, where πολλάκις belongs to the participles at the end of the sentence. The hyperbaton invariably takes place when there is a brachylogy of opposition, as in Æsch. Prom. 276: πρὸς ἄλλοτε ἄλλον πημονὴ προσιζάνει, "calamity sits down, now by one man, now by another” (ἄλλοτε μὲν πρὸς ἄλλον, ἄλλοτε δὲ πρὸς ἄλλον). |