at Rome at the same time, and gave to the public the meditations of Cardinal Turrecremata, illustrated with wood cuts. The bishop John Andrew de Bussi, librarian of the Vatican, aided the printers in their literary labors. The example of Rome was eagerly imitated by no less than fifty cities of Italy. Venice became her rival, and soon surpassed her in the number of works issuing from her press; and Milan strove to excel her in the magnificence of the execution. All the works of Cicero were printed in splendid style at Milan, in 1498 and 1499 and "an edition of Cicero's epistles appeared also in the town of Fuligno." "The books printed in Italy during these ten years" (from 1470 to 1480) "amount, according to Panzer, to 1297; of which 234 are editions of ancient classical authors. Books without date are of course not included; and the list must not be reckoned complete as to others."+ "A translation of the Bible by Malerbi, a Venetian, was published in 1471, and two other editions of that, or a different version, the same year. Eleven editions are enumerated by Panzer in the fifteenth century." The books printed at Rome down to 1500 are 935, a far greater number than issued from any other city save Venice, which counted 2835. "Much more than ten thousand editions of books or pamphlets (a late writer says fifteen thousand) were printed from 1470 to 1500. More than half the number appeared in Italy." "The editions of the Vulgate registered in Panzer are ninety-one."||

The activity of the Roman press was considerably lessened by the wars, of which Italy was the theatre in the early part of the fifteenth century but it was soon restored. "An Ethiopic, that is, Abyssinian grammar, with the Psalms in the same language, was published at Rome, by Potken, in 1513." "The Ethiopic version of the New Testament was printed at Rome in 1548."** A splendid edition of the works of Homer issued from the Roman press in 1549, under the superintendance of Anthony Bladus. Paul Manutius, the learned Venetian, on the invitation of Pius IV., established a printing office at Rome in 1561, and gave to the public many works, the expenses being defrayed by the munificence of the Pontiff. Pius appointed two correctors of the press for the Greek language, and ordered diligent search to be made for manuscripts even in the Oriental tongues. When after an absence for some time, Paul returned to Rome, in the pontificate of Gregory XIII., this enlightened Pope insisted on retain

ing him there, in his old age, and assigned him a pension, leaving him at liberty to pursue his literary labors, as might suit his convenience. "The increasing [zeal of Rome," Hallam remarks, "for the propagation of its (the) faith, both among infidels and schismatics, gave a larger sweep to the cultivation of Oriental languages." Sixtus V. placed the Apostolic printing office on a permanent basis, and spent 40,000 crowns in its establishment, providing it with Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and Servian types, and with excellent paper, and all other requisites for elegant execution; and assigned pensions to learned men charged with the supervision of the press. During his pontificate an elegant edition of the Septuagint issued from this press; as also an edition of the Vulgate, which, however, although introduced to the public with his formal sanction, he ordered to be suppressed, on the discovery of many inaccuracies which had escaped the vigilance of those who prepared it. After some years a new edition was got up with great care, to which Clement VIII. affixed his approbation, and which thenceforward has been the standard version, which cannot be changed by private authority.

The munificence of the Popes was employed in encouraging the printing of books to be circulated in the Eastern nations. The first printing office in Europe for the Arabic tongue was established at Fano, by Gregory Giorgio of Venice, at the expense of Julius II., and a book in that language issued from it in 1514. Gregory XIII. declared Cardinal Ferdinand de'Medici, protector of Ethiopia, and of the patriarchates of Alexandria and Antioch, in order to stimulate his zeal for the conversion of the inhabitants of those countries: in consequence whereof the Cardinal gathered manuscripts from all parts, and at an immense expense, cast Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic and Armenian types, and employed learned men, especially John Baptist Raimondi, to superintend the press. An Arabic and a Chaldaic grammar issued from it some works of Avicenna and Euclid were published in Arabic, with 3000 copies of the four Gospels in the same language, for distribution in the East. Raimondi also undertook to publish the whole Bible in ten different tongues. Thus in the sixteenth century, both before and after the so-called Reformation, the Popes and the Cardinals were active patrons of the press, and Bible-distributors! "The Persic grammar was given at Rome by Raimondi in 1614.” "We find Ferrari, author of a Syriac lexicon, published at Rome in 1622." In 1627 there were types of 15 different languages in the printing establishment of Propaganda, and at a later period types of 23. There issued from it in, the decline of that age, a work styled "Bibliotheca

magna Rabinica," composed by Father Bartolocci, a Cistercian monk, who for 36 years had been professor of Hebrew. An Arabic grammar, a Syro-Arabic Latin treasure, a Syriac dictionary, and a Hebrew dictionary, and other works of a like character, were published there at various times. Three Maronites, namely Victor Scialac, Abraham Ecchellensis, and Faustus Nairo, were maintained at the expense of the Pope, for the purpose of publishing works in Arabic. In 1621 a great work called "Hebrew Concordances," came from that press, and was so highly esteemed as to be reprinted in London in 1617. An Arabic Bible, in three folio volumes, was published there in 1671, which was in preparation during 46 years. A printing office furnished with Oriental types was established in Milan, by Cardinal Frederick Borromeo, from which an Arabic dictionary in four volumes issued in 1632. Cardinal Barbarigo established an Oriental printing office at Padua, which issued a splendid edition of the Koran. "A fine edition of the Koran, and still esteemed the best," as Hallam observes, "was due to Marracci, professor of Arabic in the Sapienza, or university of Rome, and published at the expense of Cardinal Barbarigo in 1698."* The munificence of Clement XI., enabled Joseph Simon Assemani, a Maronite of Syria, to publish at Rome, in 1719, his learned work on the Vatican manuscripts in the Oriental languages. The publication of the works of St. Ephrem was also begun by him, and continued by his nephew Stephen Evodius. The Acts of the martyrs of the East and of the West were published in Chaldaic, and translated by the latter; and several other works composed by others of the same family came from the same press. It is not easy to enumerate all that Rome has done, and is still engaged in doing to promote Oriental literature. 66 Who," ," cried Ranke, "does not know what the Propaganda has done for philological learning?"+

§ 8. Restrictions on the Press.

The services of the Popes to letters are forgotten, whilst the restrictions imposed by them on the press are made a matter of reproach. Berthold, archbishop of Mentz, who, as I stated above, called the art of printing divine, deemed it proper to guard against its abuse, by requiring the examination of books, by divines appointed for the purpose, previous to their publication. Alexander VI. published a similar decree with special reference to Germany, and Leo X., renewed and

*Lit. Europe vol. iv. ch. viii. n. 41.

Ranke, Hist. Popes vol. ii. 1. vii. p, 59.

confirmed it. Paul IV. in 1539, published a list of prohibited books. A committee of divines was appointed by the council of Trent to form a list of bad or dangerous books; but their task not having been completed at the close of the council, they were allowed to continue their labors, and ordered to submit them to the Pope for approbation. Hence there is a long list of books, the reading or retention of which is prohibited under ecclesiastical censures; and although this discipline is over-ruled by contrary usage in most countries, it serves to give coloring to the charge, that the Popes are hostile to the liberty of the press, which our present Pontiff is said to have branded, in his encyclical letter, as worthy of all execration. It would lead me far away, were I to enter fully into this subject, and I despair of rendering these restrictions popular: but in justice to the Popes, I must observe that their sole object has been to restrain the press within the limits of the Divine Law, and that the licentiousness which sends forth impious and corrupt books, to poison the minds of youth, is that which the present Pope has visited with censure so unmitigated. Liberty of the press, considered as a civil right, does not suppose freedom from moral restraint, or impunity from civil penalties for its abuse. Its chief value, in a civil point of view, is to give free expression to public sentiment in regard to the management of public affairs by rulers, and other officers, and thus to prevent oppression, or procure its remedy, by exposing it to general censure. I am bold to say, that the exercise of such liberty, for the true interests of the country, is nowise opposed to the spirit or discipline of the Church. It is well known that the Popes have permitted the publication at Rome of works on civil polity, which, on account of their liberal and popular principles, were proscribed in several European States; and that at all times they have shown themselves disposed to favor the oppressed, rather than stifle their complaints. Incendiary and seditious works could not, of course, be sanctioned by the rulers of the Church, who are bound to sustain established order, and promote peace: but these are not included in the true notion of liberty of the press; since in France, where this is a constitutional right, they are liable to seizure, when discovered; and in this country they expose the authors and publishers to the severity of the law. In all that regards science, literature, and the arts, the utmost freedom of the press may be enjoyed with no limit but the caution of not advancing on holy ground. The golden age of Spanish literature was precisely that in which the laws of the Index, as the tribunal which forms the list of prohibited books is called, were strictly enforced. How can it be pretended that science is impeded in her

legitimate progress, because she is warned not to displace the landmarks of religion? A vast space lies open to research and improvements, without encroaching on the realms of faith. If works of great depth, or sublimity, such as Locke's essay on the human understanding, or Milton's Paradise Lost, are found on the list of prohibited books, it is because the philosopher artfully undermined the doctrine of the spiritual nature of the soul, and the poet exhibited Christ according to the fancy of the Arians. Lest an incautious reader, misled by a great name, should imbibe fatal error, the books were proscribed; but even in countries where the discipline prevails, leave to read them is easily obtained. The Popes have at all times respected the meditations of true philosophy, and honored the inspirations of the Muses, but always saving the truth of what God has revealed. After the example of the apostles they level every height that raiseth itself against the knowledge of God, and bring into captivity every understanding to the obedience of Christ.

Freedom of the press, as a civil right, in this country, extends to the publication of works on doctrinal subjects, without regard to the faith of the Church: so that all the doctrines which we hold to be divine, may be assailed without incurring any civil penalty, which, however, may be inflicted, even here, on an open blasphemer of Christ. To the full enjoyment of this civil right by our fellow citizens, we make no objection whatever. The Constitutions of the various States, and the principles of the country and age, give it, leaving to each one the responsibility of its enjoyment.

For ourselves, believing firmly that God has made a revelation, of which the Church is the guardian, we cannot conscientiously approve of any thing written, or spoken in opposition to her teaching. The decrees of the Pope proscribing certain books as containing false doctrines, are for us the warnings of a father against what might pervert the understanding, and corrupt the hearts of his children. Independently of them, and waving the question of their obligation, we are naturally bound to shun whatever is dangerous to our faith and morals, according to our peculiar mental constitution. The youth, who, uninstructed in the great evidences of revelation, familiarizes himself with Paine's Age of Reason, exposes himself to the manifest danger of infidelity. The female, who, with morbid curiosity, peruses an obscene tale, is liable to lose that purity of heart which is her greatest treasure. In proportion to our information and moral habits the dangers may be diminished; but it is beyond a doubt, that to the reading of bad books may be traced the infidelity and corruption of innumerable individuals.