CHAPTER VI.

POLITICAL LITERATURE OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, FROM THE YEAR 1400, To 1700.

THERE was no country in Europe in which politics, as a science, underwent a more general investigation and scrutiny, within the period we are now treating of, than in Spain; a country which we have been led from infancy to consider as the most dark and bigoted among civilised nations, and the most unsusceptible of political illumination and improvement. We invariably consider it as a kingdom doomed to utter speculative darkness, and as having no resources within itself for legislative discussion or renovation, even of the most rudimental character. The bigotry of the priesthood, and the tortures of the inquisition, are ever before our eyes; and yet, strange to say, it is among some of these very inquisitors, that we find many elaborate treatises on the abstract principles of government, displaying a freedom of inquiry, and a degree of talent and learning, which would do honour to any country possessing the most tolerant spirit, and enjoying the most unfettered exercise of political rights and privileges. The fact is, there is no want of political knowledge of a philosophical stamp in Spain, but it must be confessed that it stands prominently contrasted with other neighbouring nations as

singularly deficient in that practical freedom, which is justly considered as indispensable to the true happiness and prosperity of every community.

Looking at the Spanish mind, from an intellectual point of view, it cannot be considered a barren or stupid one. On the contrary, it is full to overflowing, with rare and rich materials. And we venture to affirm, that in no part of human speculation, has there been manifested more logical skill in arranging, and a greater ability in handling general principles, than in the scientific works of the Spaniards on politics and jurisprudence. No small portion of casuistical reasoning will doubtless be found incorporated with many of the very best treatises on these subjects; but still there is such an abundance of rich and sterling matter throughout their pages, that we are left without any reasonable cause of complaint. All these political disquisitions possess a distinctive character. They all discuss politics through the medium of the christian dispensation. This consideration may seem, at first sight, to imply a contracted and narrow foundation; yet the reader will find many able publications far removed from theological bigotry and intolerance.

This theological bias, impressed upon all the Spanish dissertations on political questions, arose from the great and predominating influence of the scholastic writings of Thomas Aquinas. All the leading teachers in the universities of Spain were devoted Thomists; and as the speculations of this celebrated writer were of the most profound and varied kind, there was scarcely any topic of human investigation that his numerous and zealous disciples did not attempt to harmonise with his peculiar dogmas and principles. Politics being a fruit

ful subject of discussion and interest, naturally became impressed with the spirit of his philosophy. This spirit was characterised by extreme subtility and refinement, and a strong and perpetual tendency to foster casuistical and paradoxical reasonings on human life, and on the numerous and complicated relations which subsist between man and man in a state of social aggregation. Hence arose a vast body of abstract speculation on legislation and government, the great mass of which was unintelligible to all save to the few who were in some measure conversant with the "angelic" doctor's ideas on metaphysical, moral, and theological doctrines.

To attempt to unlock the hidden mysteries which lie at the root of all Spanish disquisitions on political matters, would be a hopeless and unprofitable task. We should have to wade through one huge folio volume after another, till the ordinary duration of human existence became absorbed in the inquiry. But there are two or three prominent points in the philosophy of Aquinas which we shall attempt to present before the reader's eye, and which may, perhaps, afford him some little assistance in comprehending the leading object which most of his disciples, in this part of Europe, have been desirous of establishing, in their several treatises, on the fundamental principles of general polity.

There are, we conceive, two leading ideas in the political views of Aquinas;-the one relates to power or authority relatively to God;-and power or authority, relatively to individuals.

The manifestations of power emanating from, and constantly depending upon deity, are evinced in the production and security of order and harmony in the

body politic. Political power is the same in its primordial essence as physical power; and the moral universe could no more exist without its constant presence and conservative influence, than could the material universe without the presiding care of that infinite intelligence, by whom it was at first called into being. The several communities of human beings scattered over the face of the globe, may be compared to the several divisions or sections of the physical world;-all having their separate offices to perform towards the production of a general result; but all radiating from a common centre of wisdom, justice, and right. The moral attributes of the supreme intelligence are the active influences which secure all the benefits which flow from the social and political associations of men, and which could never be possibly realised, unless they were constantly under the vivifying power of this divine emanation.

All human authority, of whatever kind, is a delegated authority from the divine nature. Except this authority be regulated in a certain manner, and be brought to bear upon all civil and legislative proceedings-except the wisdom, and justice, and right, and humanity shadowed forth in the divine character, be transferred to all social institutions-there can be no solid foundation for them, and anarchy, misrule, and confusion, must be their inevitable doom. The channels through which the moral attributes of deity shed their influence, so to speak, on the legislative institutions of men, are those, and those alone, which it is the express province of theology to institute and

prepare.

All the several branches or departments of political

science, have one common object-the perfection of man. To raise him in the scale of existence is their grand aim. As many things are here set in motion to accomplish a definite end, there ought to be a regulating principle of their common and harmonious action. These several branches of political investigation imply a power of co-ordination and direction. We see in society that this power belongs to intellect; men of strong and robust frames are governed by those in whom mental activity and intelligence are combined. Political knowledge, the most vital of all sciences, must occupy itself with objects of the most intellectual cast. This mental sphere, in which the politician moves, may be considered under three relations or aspects. The first embraces a knowledge of political causes, as far as these can be accurately known and determined; for unless these can be well understood, no mere abstract principles of general polity can be made practically available to the common concerns and improvement of human life. The second, all sound maxims of social philosophy fall naturally back upon the purely abstract conceptions of men's moral and religious nature; and whenever these cease to be predominant, and lawgivers become chiefly guided guided by what falls directly under the senses of men, erroneous modes of legislation must necessarily prevail. To raise the polity of nations and communities out of the deep ruts of mere sensuous action, enjoyment, and influence, is one of the highest objects of civil philosophy to achieve. The third, to confer perfect intelligibility upon all political knowledgeto show its nature, modes of operation, and final purposes-it must be contemplated apart from material