the deceased; this being added, they were then evidently offered as testimonies of respect by the relations and friends of

the deceased, perhaps at the funeral, and then collected and placed in the tomb.* Sometimes these small figures were placed in painted cases divided into compartments. These cases were about 2 feet long and 1 foot high.

PAPYRI.-Manuscripts on papyrus, of various lengths, have been found on some mummies. These rolls of papyrus are found in the coffins, or under the swathings of the mummies, between the legs, on the breast, or under the arms. Some are enclosed in a cylindrical case. The papyrus of the Museum of Turin is 66 feet long, that at Paris is 22 feet long; others are of different lengths, down to two or three feet. That of Turin may be considered as complete. On all, the upper part of the page is occupied by a line of figures of the divinities which the soul visits in succession; the rest is filled with perpendicular columns of hieroglyphics, which are prayers which the soul addresses to each divinity; towards the end of the manuscript is painted the judgment scene;

the great god Osiris is on his throne; at his feet is an enormous female crocodile, its mouth open; behind is the divine balance,

It would appear from the VI. chapter of the Ritual,' that these figures were really supposed to be capable of having an actual personality in the next world, and that they had the power of assisting the deceased in his labours in Hades,

surmounted by a cynocephalus emblem of universal justice; the good and bad actions of the soul are weighed in his presence. Horus examines the plummet, and Thoth records the sentence; standing close by is the soul of the deceased in its corporeal form, conducted by the two goddesses, Truth and Justice, before the great judge of the dead. The name of Ritual of the Dead has been given by Egyptologists to these papyri, but in reality they bear the title of "The Book of the Manifestation to Light." A copy of this, more or less complete, according to the fortune of the deceased, was deposited in the case of every mummy. The book was revised under the 26th dynasty, and then assumed its final definite form. But many parts of it are of the highest antiquity. The whole series of pilgrimages which the soul, separated from the body, was believed to accomplish in the various divisions of the lower regions, are related in this book. It contained also a collection of prayers for the use of the deceased in the other world, and of magical formulæ intended to secure the preservation of the mummy from decay, and to prevent its possession by an evil spirit, till the ultimate return of the soul of the deceased. Many of these rituals are also found written, not in hieroglyphics, but in hieratic characters, which are an abbreviated form of hieroglyphic signs. Papyri with hieroglyphics are nearly always divided by ruled lines into narrow vertical columns of an inch or less in breadth, in which the hieroglyphic signs are arranged one under the other. Sometimes the papyri are found written in the enchorial character. Several manuscripts in Greek on papyrus have been also discovered in Egypt; they are, however, of a late date, and relate to the sale of lands; many have been discovered referring to lands and possessions about Thebes.

Greek Tombs.-The Greeks also honoured the memory of the dead by public monuments; those of founders of cities, and those of heroes, were in the interior of the city, and the others outside. At Sparta, however, a law of Lycurgus allowed of burial around the temples and in the city. The most ancient tombs of the Greeks were tumuli or mounds of earth (xópara). Some are still to be seen in the plains of Troy, which have been described by Homer. Subterranean vaults were also used for sepulchral purposes. The so-called "Treasury of Atreus," at Mycenæ, and of Minyas at Orchomenos, are supposed to have been royal sepulchres. The structure at Mycena consists of a large vault,

58 feet 6 inches in width and 40 in height, of horizontal layers of stone, projecting the one beyond the other, till one small stone closed the whole, and made the vault complete; this gave access by a side door to a small chamber excavated in the solid rock; this was probably the burial place. At a later period, a simple cippus or truncated column, surrounded by trees, arose

over the corpse, and an inscription gave the name and titles of the deceased. Those of private individuals were generally in the shape of pillars (σrýλa) or upright stone tablets, columns (kioves), and small buildings in the form of temples (vaidia, or pwa): others were in the form of altars, but the inscription and emblems on them prevent them from being confounded. Some

times the stone tablets were surmounted with an oval heading called éríonμa. A tomb of a quadrangular form placed in a particular site, and dedicated to the memory of those slain in battle was termed a polyandrion, of which the Lion tomb near Cnidus is supposed to be an example. It consists of a square low basement resting on four steps, and carrying four engaged Doric columns, with a cornice over the whole, being about thirty-one feet square in the basement. Above the cornice are gradini, forming a sort of pyramid of steps having at the summit a lion, now in the British Museum. The Polyandrion, or sepulchral monument of the Greeks who fell at Thermopylæ still exists. It is a tumulus with the remains of a square pedestal built of square blocks of marble. Sepulchral monuments were most frequently built by the side of roads, and near the gates of the city commemorative monuments were also erected, in which architecture and sculpture have vied to enhance the splendour of these sepulchral structures. At Athens the tombs of celebrated men were on the road from the Dipylum to the Academy. The first met was that of Thrasybulus. Next occurred those of Pericles, Chabrias and Phormio. Along the road were also the tombs of all who had fallen in battle. Other tombs were placed in the Cerameicus, where lay those of Harmodius and Aristogiton, the philosophers Zeno and Chrysippus, Nicias, the encaustic painter, and Lycurgus who adorned Athens. Many have been discovered in Lycia, rich with architectural and sculptural decoration. At Telmessus the rock-cut tombs assume the form of temples. They usually have a portico of columns in antis, with one or more chambers behind; most of the columns are Ionic, few being Doric. The Harpy tomb, formerly in the acropolis of Xanthus, now in the British Museum, affords examples of archaic sculpture, its date being probably not later than 500 B.C.; the sculptures decorated the four sides of a rectangular solid shaft, about 17 feet high, and supported a roof inclosing a chamber 7 feet 6 inches square; the sculptures are supposed to represent the myth of Pandarus, whose daughters were carried off by harpies. Another remarkable tomb is that of a satrap of Lycia, discovered at Xanthus, now in the British Museum. It resembles a roofed house, with beams issuing forth from the gables, the arch of the roof resembling that of the early Gothic. On each side of the roof is sculptured an armed warrior, conjectured to be Glaucus or Sarpedon, in a chariot of four horses. But the

most sumptuous commemorative monument of ancient times was the mausoleum of Halicarnassus, erected by Queen Artemisia, B.C. 353, in memory of her husband, Mausolus, King of Caria. The most celebrated architects and sculptors of the age were employed by the sorrowing queen, as she had resolved to raise a sepulchral monument which should surpass everything the world had yet seen. It consisted of a lofty basement, on which stood an oblong Ionic edifice surrounded by thirty-six Ionic columns, and surmounted by a pyramid of twenty-four steps. The whole structure, 140 feet in height, was crowned by a chariot group in white marble, on which, probably, stood Mausolus himself.

In Magna Grecia tombs were built underground (róyala, or Tóуela); they were built with large cut stones, and rarely connected with cement, the walls inside were coated with stucco and adorned with paintings. The corpse was placed on the ground, its feet turned towards the entrance; painted vases were placed by the side of the corpse, and more were suspended on the walls by nails of bronze. Several rock-cut tombs, with frontispieces in the Ionic style, have been lately discovered at Canosa.

Etruscan. Mr. Fergusson divides Etruscan tombs into two classes: First, those cut in the rock, and resembling dwelling houses; secondly, the circular tumuli, by far the most nume