affords an example of a cameo in malachite, representing the bust of a Bacchante. It is generally understood to answer to the Smaragdus Medicus of Pliny.

CALLAIS-TURQUOISE.

The callais of Pliny is supposed to answer to the turquoise of the present day. He thus describes it: "Callais is like sapphiros (lapis lazuli) in colour, only that it is paler and more closely resembles the tint of the water near the sea shore in appearance." The Oriental or mineral turquoise comes from Persia and Arabia, and is composed of phosphate of alumina, coloured by a phosphate of copper. It is met with in Persia in narrow cracks in aluminous ironstone, and in veins in siliceous rocks. Stones of great size and beauty, some being not less than four and five inches in circumference, have been lately brought from Arabia Petræa. They were found in lofty precipitous mountains of iron sandstone. The occidental, or bone turquoise, is said to be composed of fossil bones or teeth coloured with oxide of copper. Intagli and camei in turquoise are of very doubtful antiquity.

The green variety of turquoise, on which the Romans set the highest value, was the callaina of Pliny.

HEMATITES-HÆMATITE.

Hæmatite is a red ironstone. According to Pliny it is found in Ethiopia. It has been also called bloodstone, and has often been used for scarabæi and intagli by the Egyptians, and for cylinders by the Babylonians.

MAGNES-MAGNETITE.

Magnetite is a magnetic iron ore, commonly termed "loadstone." It has a dark iron-grey colour and metallic lustre. 'It varies in colour," according to Pliny; "that of Magnesia, bordering on Macedonia, being of reddish black; that of Boeotia being more red than black. The kind found in Troas is black. The most inferior, however, of all,” he says, “ is that of Magnesia, in Asia. It has been frequently made use of by ancient engravers, especially by those of Egypt and Persia." Babylonian cylinders are frequently found of this material. Rude intagli, with Gnostic subjects, used as amulets, have been largely manufactured in this stone.

OBSIDIANUM-OBSIDIAN.

Obsidian is a volcanic glass of a blackish greenish colour, consisting of lava suddenly cooled. It is opaque, or slightly translucent on the edges of fragments. It is thus noticed by Pliny: "This stone is of a very dark colour, and sometimes transparent; but it is of a somewhat dense appearance, and reflects, when attached as a mirror to a wall, the shadow of the object, rather than the image. Many persons use it for jewellery, and I myself have seen solid statues in this material of the late Emperor Augustus." Intagli of this material are very rare.

BASALTES-BASALT.

Basalt is an igneous rock, usually of a dark green or brownish black colour, and of a very fine grain. Intagli and scarabæi of a very late period among the Egyptians are only to be met with of this material. There are also some Gnostic amulets of this stone. It was frequently employed for statues by the Egyptians, and by the Romans of the age of Hadrian. It is the "basanites" of Pliny.

PORPHYRITES LEPTOPSEPHOS-PORPHYRY.

Porphyry is a stone of a beautiful red colour, thickly disseminated with white crystals of felspar. It receives a fine polish, and has been chiefly used for columns, vases, and bas-reliefs. Small intagli on this stone were used by the later Romans as talismans. It was also employed by Italian artists at the Revival. The porphyrites of Pliny is the red marble termed at Rome rosso antico.

OPHITES-SERPENTINE.

The serpentine met with in Italy, which is called serpentino antico, is of a dark dull green colour, with long whitish spots. It was called by the ancients marmor, "ophites," or memphites, and was obtained, as its name imports, from the neighbourhood of Memphis.

GRANITE.

Granite is a primitive rock, whose constituent parts are felspar, quartz, and mica. The red or Egyptian variety (the red felspar predominating) was principally used by the ancients.

The variety of granite called syenite is composed of felspar, quartz, and hornblende. Though deriving its name from Syene, in Egypt, but little of it is met with in that place, the rock there being chiefly granite. The syenite of antiquity, used for statues, was really granite.

The Egyptians were the only people who engraved small objects on serpentine and granite. Scarabæi, bearing hieroglyphics, of these materials frequently occur.

IMITATIONS.

The art of imitating gems or precious stones was well known to the ancients. The Egyptians were undoubtedly in possession of this art, as several valuable examples sufficiently prove. Pliny tells us that the Greeks and Romans were equally skilful in imitating emeralds and other transparent stones, by colouring crystals; they also manufactured onyx and sardonyx by cementing red and dark-coloured chalcedony to a white layer. Camei have been also imitated by fusing together coloured layers of glass, which when cooling was made to receive the impression of the relieved figure it was intended to imitate. In the possession of the author is a paste head of Omphale, imitating a cameo of sardonyx, so exquisitely done as almost to deceive an experienced judge. Pastes, or imitations of engraved gems in intaglio, are to be seen in many collections. Ancient objects of this kind are much prized, their value being independent of the material, for we have become acquainted by the means of these imitations with several admirable works, the originals of which have not come down to us. Countless modern imitations of these are also frequently to be met with.

IMPRESSIONS.

The finest order of gems being seldom within the means of private purchasers, the prevailing taste for engraved gems, and the impossibility for amateurs and artists to visit every cabinet and collection, has led to the necessity of making collections of impressions of engraved gems, in plaster, sulphur, and other materials. Excepting the nature of the stone itself, these impressions are a complete image of the gem, and serve, as well as the original, for the researches of the historian, the artist, and the archeologist. The art of making these impressions and

imitations, places all that constitutes the true value of the original within the most moderate expenditure. These impressions have been multiplied, and systematic collections have been formed most useful for the study of engraved gems. Pichler made a large collection of impressions of the most beautiful stones, but did not publish the catalogue, which he intended to compile. Lippert made a very extensive collection of impressions, and the learned catalogue which he drew up is most useful for their study; but the best imitations of the antique are the pastes executed by Tassie. The engraving and tint of the gem are copied with extraordinary fidelity. Tassie's collection, perhaps the most complete in Europe, amounts to about 15,000, and comprises fac-similes of all the most celebrated gems. Raspé published a catalogue of them. Collections of these impressions would be of the greatest advantage and utility, if their selection was made with some care, if particular attention was paid not to mix modern works with ancient works, and also if the nature of the material, the form and dimensions of the stone, and the cabinet in which it was to be found, were carefully indicated. Collections of impressions in sulphur and in scagliola are frequent in Italy. Those of Paoletti, and particularly those of Cades at Rome, are remarkable for their careful finish.

Ancient impressions of intagli in fine clay (yn onμavrpis the sealing earth of the Greeks) are frequently found, sometimes with the impress of a monogram on the reverse. They are supposed to be tesseræ, or tokens given by the owner of the impressed seal.

PALEOGRAPHY, OR INSCRIPTIONS.

I.

AIM AND UTILITY OF ITS STUDY.

The study of ancient inscriptions is termed palæography. These inscriptions are isolated, or traced on some monument of architecture, sculpture, &c., or on vases or paintings. We shall here treat alone of inscriptions, properly so called, giving the text of laws, decrees, public accounts, dedications, votive

and laudatory inscriptions, historical narratives and documents, epitaphs, &c. The Greeks generally gave to inscriptions the name of epigraph, or epigram, éπiypapǹ, éπiypaμμa. The Romans termed them inscriptio, titulus, marmor, lapis, monumentum, memoria, tabula, mensa, epitaphium, &c., according to their distinction, and the nature of the text they present. The importance of the study of ancient inscriptions need not be dwelt on here. Inscriptions are the real archives of the annals of ancient nations. They are the contemporaneous witnesses of the event and of the men whose memory they hand down. They bear unquestionable evidences of authenticity, and are consequently deserving of every confidence. Their public exhibition during centuries to the eyes of numerous people who might find an interest in contradicting them, gives them a character of truth and a general sanction which the narratives of historians do not always inspire, who may have had opposing interests in the same historical fact.

The study of palæography, or at least the knowledge of its results, is therefore the first duty of the historian of ancient nations. He will find in them important data regarding the chronology, the geography, the religious systems, the civil government, the laws and administration of affairs, the state of individuals, the affiliations of illustrious families, the customs, manners, even the very prejudices of ancient societies; and in regard to everything which is connected with the organisation of the societies, the magistrates, the public revenue and its employment, with military organisation, wars and alliances, lastly with their mode of intellectual life, their progress in knowledge, their languages, their dialects, and their system of writing. It is to inscriptions that history is mainly indebted for the greater number of the corrections, which have cast their light on obscure passages of the great writers of antiquity, or have rectified their erroneous assertions. "A great number of inscriptions, especially those recording great events, laws, or decrees of the government, which it was important for every citizen to know, supplied to some extent the want of the art of printing. When, for example, the laws of the twelve tables at Rome were set up in public, their public exhibition was equivalent to their publication by means of the art of printing, for every Roman might go and read them, and if he liked, take a copy of them for his private use. Previous to the invention of the art of printing, inscrip